.*tfw^^

J^2

■■.^

>i>

J-" '

-.''

^^t

.m^

■■^V r

■■ "-^ VvTi*

o^S^>'^

-^

vS^

^- ^■

^L

^^

^-V

/ ■ ^ T.

>-^

__r^

>,i> I >

,^'-

■*m.-''>.

0

">

'r*.

-^L-i

3 o

vJ>\>

^

>0)

'v> r

)

1 )- ;)

■■>>>

)

^)

3r»

»i

wj

^HK

t> >)y

is.

.I*

:">"\^

>0

emg^

5» :S> >^^^

I^3€

y "

:o>>.

,U>

^ ■ ^

^\

!>f-m

>'>0 )>.

:> ' K^.'

^>

.-T

^

y ^

. vr

■ V'

D

>.>!

^K

- .-4.

Wt^F^ f-

^

!>))

r> ;

■ Vl f^ i- ^^0

>> >

O'^i

3 ^>:^.>

»)

■^^z

.J>.»

>»5>

■> >^'

)

1 :

\>

'Hissfkt

WHITNEY LIBRARY,

IIARVAKD UNIVERSITY.

> O

THE GIFT OF

J. I). WHITNEY,

Stuf'fjh Tlooper Piiyft^ssor

IN THE

MUSEUM OF OOMPAEATIVE ZOOLOGY

^^^^

c^VO

' J--Vr"'

W

I* ■'\

"y

)'. \

'y^x>\

i

4.

iV

,.\

»

t>

■f ^

":)'^

> .-^>"15)

>> ^;}P

H r

1

^ h

1 ■

. ^— H-j

^ _ __

;.

r^,

);

!■

^rr

.>

■>/-■

O

I

ffiS

fe

» :3

^ %

»

^

i)7

0

y

>V'

:>)':a0^

D

/ _

i>

>^i)>>/

^_'' —.^

>.;>

^ -

j> I

^

r>

■> xo

>>>

3>

>_

j^X'ii' > h

n-^ .^--

'V

-».:-.":

)^-\..

■• ..'C

™fl*^JF^:^fflf JWS

<: C<c

K

'ym

>jfi>

r- rz^^^"^

^^Tx,i

' "x-

■:^:

J

%

.-'■■

\

■^

>

■h.->\

r-.*^-

i?^--

TT^

►A

'>

,?1. . ^-

^^' _

-^-^e;^

=--■«??,

^- »,

^

;.. '

■^

j.^ ■■

»

>.])

J

^

\

^^.

;..j»'

w.

?. ■* '

j^^*.^-^

jft>&>

ji>->j>

\ ^ I— ^ — j-^"^

■)x

liM.

■^ xOf-.^

-^ r-^ -r.

^^" \^T'

t^-r?il

-..3fr>'3

.^ ■■■-■-

i>

■ii^

V.

r>ys* .

■ ,2»,J

•Tfe-U

--^

>^

n

> ^

>>

■1

;

1^^ 1 ^^ t

5^

,^">

_ _J

'-^.■■''

Wi

.>

.^

>>

"^

>3I

:> >

I

-t

a>

-J

b

«?

^

^ \ c

■ -fe.^P -^ ■

" I

">.>; fi

)■< '-)

): -;J.

vtr-^

mm-

■

3

"\

1

y^

1-T"

^

1

^

->

'■^^

>>

J

^■n

*^m.

\^^

tf.

^ftS.

;'

'1^

j-i

m

^>:>r>

^ -^

>t>

JRJ'^.

s»^

> >:>

m

y Z>

X

w/

■■^J^

w-

i^-iU

J^r

>.

r, ^*Vi^

^^^-Jrt■^

f>"">> >'» 'S^B.-^

.>>x^

fJ-^.-^J

as).

>-.

^<i

^^

^

^^J

■^4^1

'?.M

M

^

;^

'Kfe>'>

niWi-^T^i-^'

w

^ 5> ^>

X

^^^

J

c-^'

7t

:^

.vJ

>l

L^Lt

V ''rf

Y

■:^-fe--

1»!>I>

ms^

*r-,

■::JktJ--

^

i

i\

■l

N

,^

fy

PROCEEDINGS

OF THa

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOClEi x

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

KOIl

PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

Vol. XII

JAi^^UAKY 1871 TO DECEMBEK 1872

PITIJ.ADELPITIA:
1* H I N T E D E O U T HE S O C I E T Y

BY M'cALLA & STAYELY.

■■ 1873.

Jr

■

r

V

..

\

r

■l

L

5.

1

r 11 0 C E E D T X G S

OP THE

AMEEICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

YoL. xir.

1871.

Xo. 80

L

I

I

s

Slated Meeting^ January 6.

Present, seventeen members.

Geo. B. AVood, President, in the Cliair.

Mr. Eckley Coxe, lately elected, Avas presented to the pre-
siding^ officer nnd took his seat.

The resio:uation of Dr. 13. F. Condie on account of ill health

was received, and accepted.

A photograph of Mr. Thomas Davidson, dated Geological
Society, Somerset House, London, Dec. G, 1870, was received.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from tlie London
Geological Society (Proceedings Xo. 82); the Smithsonian
Institution (83); and the Swiss Society at Berne, dated Xo-
vemhcr, 18G9 (Proceedings, vols. X and XI).

Donations for the Librarv were received from the Moscow
N. PL S., pjoston Geological Society, Swiss Society, Bavarian
Academy, E. Institution of G. B., London Meteorological,
Chemical and Geological Societies, Leeds Philosophical So-
ciety, E. Dublin Societ}^, Peabody Museum at Boston, Boston
]Sr. 11. S., Silliman's Journal, American Antiquarian Society,
Franklin Institute, College of Physicians, Penn IMonthly, U.
S. Observatory, the Treasury Bureau, and Editors of Nature.

A. r. S. — VOL. XII — A

2

The deceo.se of Win. Chauvenet of St. Louis, a member of
the Society, at St. Paul, Dec. 13, 1870, was aiino"unccd by
the Secretary.

The decease of Joshua J. Cohen, a member of the Society,
at Baltimore, N'ovember 4, 1870, aged 70 years, was an-
nounced by Prof. Trego.

The decease of Albert Barnes, a member of the Society, at
Philadelphia, Dec. 24, 1870, aged 72 years, was announced
by Mr. Praley.

Dr. Geo. B. Wood eomnuinicatcd the results of experiments
on the best method of revivino; fruit trees.

Prof Cope communicated tiie discovery of a new genus of
fish, from the Green Eiver Country.

Mr. Ciiase described the methods adopted by the Meteoro-
logical Board of the Koyal Society, which he had lately vis-
ited in London.

The Eeport of the Judges and Clerks of the annual election
was read, by which the following members were dechired duly
elected to fill the respective offices of the Society for the en-
suing 3^car.

r

President.
George B. AYood.

Vice Presidents.

John C. Cresson

Isaac Lea,
Secretaries.

Frederick Pralev,

Charles B. Trego,
E. Otis Kendall,

John L. LeCoute,
J. P. Lesley.

Hector Tyudale,

Curators.
Elias Durand,

Treasurer.
Charles B. Trego.

Joseph Carson

Counsellors to serve titree years.

Isaac Hays,
Eobert E. Eogers,

Henry C. Carey,
Eobert Bridi^'cs.

1 '

i

:

\

y

■\

i

\

Mr. Lesley Avas nominated Librarian.

Pending nominations for membership, ISTos. CGI to 6G8 were
read.

n

<-A

;

Jan. 6, ]S7i.]

3

[\Yood.

The Publication Committee reported upon the subject of
tlie publication of Dr. 11- C. Wood's Memoir of the Fresh
Water Alcfos of the United States.

The Keport of the Finance Committeej postponed from the
last mcetiiKT Avas read by its Cliairman, Mr. Fralej; and tlie
sums recommended by the Comnuttee ^Yere, on motuni, ap-
propriated for the expenses of the ensuing year. A further
recommendation to increase the insurance on tlie Ilall, was
on motion adopted; and tlie meeting was adjourned.

Revival of Fkuit Tuf^^s pre mature! j/ ceasing to bear fruit, or preiiia-

tiirely decayinrj, by Geo. B. Wood, M. D.

{Gommumcaied to the American Philosophical Society, January C, 1871.)

r

It is well known that most fruit trees, especlaUy the peach and apple
trcus, in sites where they have been long cultivated, often cease to bear
fruit, aiKl even perish, long- before their natural period. Thus the peach,
which has a normal life of 30 or GO years, or longer, and grows under fa-
vourable circumstances to the size of a considerable tree, generally, in this
part of the United States, ceases to bear fruit after two or three years of
productiveness, and soon after begins to decay, seldom living beyond 15
or 20 years. The apple tree also, long before it has attained its normal
length of life, often ceases to yield fruit, either for a time or permanently,
without apparent cause; and trees, planted on the site of an old orchard
which Itasbeen removed, not unfrequently refuse to bear at all, or at least

to a profitable extent.

It is obviously of great importance to discover the cause or causes of
such failures, and, if possible, to apply a remedy or preventive. Unless
I greatly deceive myself, I have succeeded in sliowing that tlie evil gen-
erally has its source in a dclicicncy of the salts of potassa in the soil, and
may be corrected by supplying that deficiency.

The alkali potassa, in combination generally with one or another of
the vegetable acids, is an essential ingredient in all plants, excepting
the sea plants, in which its place is supplied by soda. In living vegeta-
bles it is contained dissolved in tlie juice, and is consequently most abun-
dant in the most succulent parts; and, when the plants are burned, the al-
kaliis left behind in the ashes, of whicii it constitutes an exceedingly vari-
able proportion, accoixling to the peculiar plant or part of the plant burned.
Thus, while the ashes of oak wood contain only about 3 parts in 1000,
those of the common poke, the growing wheat stalk, and the potato
stems, contain 48 or 50 parts or more. The greater portion by far of the
alkali is in the state of carbonate, with a little in the caustic state, and
being, inthcsc cpnditions, very soluble in water, is extracted by hxiviation

ll

Wood. ]

4

[Jan. 6,

with water, and obtained by evaporating the ley. A much ^mrdlcr portion
is in the form of silicate, which is left behind iu the ashes after lixiviation,
and gives to the soap-boilers' ashes almost ;dl if not quite all their vahie
as a manure. It is, however, only the fresh-burned ashes, not yet sub-
mitted to llxiviation, and consequently still containhig the potash in its
soluble state, that is applicable to the purpose of supi)lying the alkali to
fruit trees in tlie mode in which I employ it.

"When plants arc no longer supplied with the requisite amount of pot-
ash, they cense to grow, and at length generally perish. In the case ot
the succulent fiuit trees, as the alkali is required in the largesc propor-
tion in the fruit, this is the first to suffer; then the leaves gradually fail;
and at length the whole tree dies, limb after limb.

How I eame to discover this source of premature failure of fruit trees,
and to supply tlic deficiency by means of the soluble potash contained in
fresh ashes, I explained, so far as the peach tree is concerned, in a com-
munication made last year to the Society, which was i>ublishcd in the
Proceedings.

In that communication I stated that, bc-lieviug with most others
that tlic peach tree polishes prematurely, in consequence of being at-
tacked near the root by a species of worm, I employed as a remedy
against this parasite, after scraping as far as possible the worm out of tlie
root with a knife, fresli aslies in an excavation about tlic stem of the
plant; supposing that, by their caustic power, they might destroy any re-
mains of the insect or its eggs. This method was not original with my-
self; as I had seen it practiced in my youth very effectually in keeping a
peach orchard in bearing for several years.

The peach trees on which I tried the experiment had long ceased to boar
fruit, and were in the last stage of decay ; in several instances one or
more branches being absolutely dead, and the stem being covered with
liehens, a,s is apt to liappeu with dying trees.

This was done in the Autumn ; the earth having been removed around
the stem of each tree to the depth of four or five inches, so as to lay bare
the upper surfa,ee of the main roots, and the excavation tilled with fresh
ashes. Next Spring a niarvollous cliange w^as experienced by the trees.
They had recovered more than the vigor of their early life, and bore fruit
in an abundance which I had rarely, if ever, witnessed.

I could not conceive that such a result should proceed so rapidly, from
the destruction of a few worms. Jjcsides, soine of the trees had no worms .
that could be observed ; and yet they had been as far gone, and were as

much revived as the others.

I was, therefoi'e, driven to the conclusion, that the ashes had not acted
by destroying tlie worm, but by furidshing to the trees a material neces-
sary to their existence, and from the want of which they were perisldng.
This could only be the soluble potash contained in the ashes, which being
dissolved by the rain, was carried in sohution along the roots to the mi-
nute rootlets where it was needed.

One important infereueo, which may be here incidentally mentioned, is .

■^

^

V

■.'

.

■■

■

■

.

■

t

t!

B'''::-

*

\

1871. j

0

[Wood.

that the peach trees were not (lying from the "worm?, hut that these at-
tacked them hecanse they were (lying from other causes ; and it is proba-
bly true, as a i^eneral rule, that plants in perfect health are in a condition
to protect themselves against destructive parasites, prohahly because
the salts of potash in their vessels are repulsive or even destructive
to the parasites, which destroy the plant in the absence of this defense.
I am not certain even that the curculio may not attack certain fruits,
the plum for example, in consequence of cleiiciency of the alkali in its

juice.

At first my experiments were confined to the peach tree; but it may be
remembered that I said in u'ly communication to the Society that the
principle was apphcable as well to other fruit trees, especially the apple,
which often refuses to bear, apparently capriciously, but probably
from the same deficiency of potash in the soil.

Last year I had the opportunity of testing the correctness of this sup-
position. I happened to have two apple orchards; one of them old, per-
liaps GO years or more, the other comparatively young, having been
planted, 15 or 20 years since, upon a piece of ground wliich liad previously
been the site of an apple orchard for I presume nearly a century. Both
of these orchards might be considered as nearly or quite barren; the old
orchard not having borne fruit of any account for 5 or 0 years ; and the
young one having never borne at all.

In the Autumn of 1809, I tried with these trees the same experi-
ments as in the Autumn before I had tried with the peach trees. The
earth was dug from around their stems to the depth of about 5 inches,
and the excavation filled, in each case, with about half a bushel of fresh
ashes. As regards the old orchard, a ixirt was aUowed to remain without
treatment, so as to secure the effect of contrast. In tlie following Spiing
and Summer (tS70), my expectations were fully realized. Early in the sea-
son a striking diflerenco was observed betv.-een the trees not treated with
ashes and those "which had been so treated. A dividing line could be observed
between tlie two sections of the orcliard ; the trees which Inid been ashed
bcin*"'' forward both in leaf and blossom, wdiile the others had made little
progress ; and the same contrast was presented in tlie fruit ; the trees Icf
to ihemselvcs continuing barj-en, while the ashed trees were loaded with
apjiles. The young orchard, which liad never b6rne fruit of any account,
was also made for the lirst time very productive.

A similar experiment I tried on several fruit trees of diii'eront kinds in
my garden in town. Though the a.shes were apjihcd in Spring instead of
of Autumn, the trees in the growing season gave evidence of a similar
result. The trees were rielily covered with blossoms, which were just
becoming exchanged for young fruit, when the famous hail storm which
proved so destructive in this city last Summer, put an end to the experi-
ment by stripping the trees of blossom and fruit, and to a great extent

even of their leaves.

Among the trees was a very old Newtown pippon tree, probably of not

i-
u

■ I'^g^^

.^^

■ LhH^— ^Jg^.J.'.^l..^.

■■■■-^Y -^

■^ ->v -^ .■"v^^.l"^-!^^ \ ..■ -. ■L**ki.'^r* ^

ii

Wood.]

6

Jan. 6,

less than thrce-quurlcrs of a centuiy, -which had for years ceased to hear,
or at host only now and then brought forth a small knotty fruit unfit
for use. The tree liad been dying branch by branch every year, until re-
duced almost to the original stem, with a few brandies above. This tree
appeared in the warm season to have renewed its youth. It was richly
loaded with flowers and fruit, and gave hopes of an abundant product in
the Autumn. It suffered, however, like the others from tlie storm ; very
few of the blossoms or young fruit remaining still attached. One of theso
went on to full size; and the handsome Kewtown pippen which I now
exhibit to the members as the sole relict of the storm, shows what the
product might have been had not the hail intcifercd.

I consider that the efticiency of potassa in the revival of fruit trees has
been satisfactorily dcnumstrated by the foregoing experiments, at least in
relation to the peach and apple trees, and I may a<kl also the pear and
quince, several of which were treated in the sanrc way and with similar

results.

As to the securing of the plum and other fruits against the curculio,

I think it hi<'hly probable that this also may be done by ashes, on the
principle already stated, but I can adduce no proof of the fact; for, in
the only instance in which ashes Avere applied to a plum, though the tree
showed its effects by a copious growth of leaves and llowers, and even of
young fruit ; yet the destruction of these by the hail storm prevented the
completion of the experiment ; and for the determination of this point,
which is an important one, we shall have to wait another year.

But, important as I consi<lor the. discovery of the reviving power of
potasJa in the case of failing fruit trees, I attach much greater value
to its inlluence in anotlier direction, which has suggested itself in tlie
prosecution of the foregoing experiments. It is an unfortunate fact,
with which the farmers of my own country neighbourhood are unhap-
pily but too familiar, that certain cereal crops, especially that of wheat,
have for some years failed to be renumerativc. Whei'c wheat formerly
yielded 30 bushels or more to the acre, it can now seldom be made to
produce more than 12 or 15 bushels.

In examining into the relative proportion of potassa contained in the
ashes of different plants, I was surprised to Und that, while the ashes of
the conunon Are wood, as the oak, maple, &c., contain from about 2 to
4 parts in 1000, the wheat stalk yields 47 pa-rts. Now, while this fact
shows the extraordinary demand of growing wheat for potassa, it sug-
gests also that the failure of this crop of late n^ay be owing to the same
deficiency of the salts of potassa in the soil which has caused the premature
destruction of the peach; and, though the manure employed in the culti-
vation of wheat contains potassa, yet it does not yield as much of this al-
kali as the plant requires for its gi'eatest productiveness; few of the
vegetables that unite in the constitution of manure containing so large a
proportion as wlieat. To meet this demand of wheat, I propose to employ
uuleached ashes in the cultivation of this cereal. Leached ashes, though
^containing but a small proportion of potassa, and that chiclly in the form

I

ISTl ]

7

[Wood.

of insoluble silicate, have nevertheless been fouiid one of the best fertilizers
for Avheat ; ami the nnleached, if properly applied, would probably pro-
duce a luuch greater efrcct. Tills is as yet (.:onjectura] ; but I have in-
stituted an experiment wliich I hope may determine the point.

In tlie early Autumn T caused an acre of ground to be prepared for a
■\vhcat crop. It was divided into three parts, one of -which was to be
treated ^vith fresli ashes exclusively, another ^vith ashes and swamp muck,
andthe third witli muck nlone. The part treated witli fresh ashes ex-
clusively was first ploughed, and then sown with wheat and ashes, and
finally harrowed; the ashes being applied to the surface, so that its
potassa wdien dissolved by the rain should be in immediate contact
with the gernunating seed; instead of being ploughed in, as ordinary
leached ashes are. The second part, after being covered with the muck,
was ploughed ; and the wheat and ashes were applied as before. The
third part was simply treated with muck, then ploughed and sown with
w lie at.

Tlie result of this experiment cannot be determined until the time of
the wheat harvest next Summer ; but, thus far, it is decidedly in favor of
the ashes ; the two-thirds which were treated with this material being
obviously better grown th:in tlie part treated with muck alone. A glance
of the eye is sufficient to show a decided lino of demarcation, the ashed
part being greener and farther advanced than the remainder.

I have little doubt that the same remarks are equally applicable to the
connnon potato. This is now a much less certain, and on the whole much
less productive crop than formerly. I find that the potato stalks contain
55 parts of potassa in 1000 of ashes ; so that the plant requires consider-
ably more potassa than wheat. If, therefore, fresh ashes are to be a rem-
edy for the failure of the wheat crop, they are likely to be even more so
for the potato. Tlte verification of this supposition experimentally I have
reserved for the next year, when, if living, I propose to try an experiment
on a large scale.

An objection to all the foregoing facts, in a practical bearing, is the
question whence the ashes are to be obtained for carrying the proposition
into elfect on a large scale, and whether enough can be obtained for the
purpose. An obvious answer to this objection is that, should ashes fail
in any neighbourhood, recorrrse can be had to the crude potash of the shops
derived from the lixiviation of the ashes of forests cleared in the course of
cultivation, and, when these forests shall have all been destroyed, we may
resort to the minerals containing potassa, as to the felspar in granite
rocks, which contains a large proportion of that alkali.

But for a long time yet to come, and indefinitely as regards fruit trees,
ashes can be obtained from the resources of tlie farm itself. If all the

r

falling leaves of the woods and swa,mps, all the dead and (lying branches

L

or stems of trees, an.d all the Aveeds, trimmings of trees, and other rub-
bish of a farm be collected and burnt, enough ashes could probably be
obtained annually, for an indefinite length of time, to keep all the fruit
trees in full bearing.

^

J

8

■^
^

Slated Meeting^ Janitary 20, 1871.

Present, twelve members.

Geo. B. Wood, President, in the Cliair,

A letter was received from the Illinois Industrial Univer-
sity at Champaignj dated Jan. 12, 1871.

Letters of envoy were received from the E. Saxon Societv,
and the Society of Natural Sciences at Chemnitz.

Donations for the Library were received from the Eoyal
Academies and Societies at Berlin, Leipsig, Munich. Chem-
nitz, Altenburg, Quebec and Montreal; the London Astro-
nomical, Antiquarian and Meteorological Societies* tl

JO

American and IMedical Jouj'uals, Prof Greenougli of Ca
bridge. Dr. I). D. Sladc of Ciicstnut Hill, Mass., Prof E. P.

:\ndrews of Columbus, Ohio, and Gen. Tyndale.

The death of Stephen Colwell, at Pliiladelphia, Jan'y loth,
aged 70 j^cars, was announced by Prof Cresson; and on mo-
tion, Mr. Carey was aj)pointed to pi'epare an obituary notice
of tlie deceased.

The death of Dr. Edward Rhoads, at Pliiladelphia, Jan'y
loth, aged 29 years, was announced by Professor Trego.

Mr. Lesley was elected Librarian.

The Committee to whicli was referred the paper of Dr.
Pepper, on a case of nniversal Hyperostosis, reported in favor
of ils publication in the Proceedings of the Society, accompa-
nied witli figures for two octavo platen, which, ou motion of
Pj'of. Cresson, was so ordered.

A communication entitled : ''Computation of the effects of
gradients, by Herman Haupt/' was read by the Secretary.

<

=>!

I

^*

t

■11

Jan. 20, 1871.]

9

[Haupt.

Computation of Effect of Gredients^ hj Hermak IIauft, C. E

{Bead before ilic American Philosophical Society^ Jan. 30, 1871.)

Whentlie maximum load of tlie same engine on a.nyt-\YO different incli-
nations has been determined by experiment, the data thus furnished ^YiU
suJTicc to calcuhite the load on any other inclination, the load on a level,
the angle of friction at which a train will descend by gravity, the tractive
power per ton of load required on a level, and the number of pounds

adhesion for each ton of load.

Let ii = resistance of: the train on a level, which is equal to the power

of the engine.

W =- gross weight of train on a level.

-\Vi = Weight of train on grade a.

W2 = Weight of train on grade b.

It is proper to assume that the power required to move a train and tlie
resistance, which is equal to it, will be in proportion to the gross weight.

The force of gravity on any inclination is in proportion to the licight
of the plane divided by its length, or as the rise per mile divided by 5280.

The resistance of the train W being in propoillon to its weight, will
be expressed by

W^

/

r

and llio resistance of

W2 by

W2

- R
W

The gravity of the train W on the grade a

W'a

and of the train W^ on the grade

b

5280

W2b

5380

If tlie engine is supposed to be loaded to the limit of its capacity on
each gradient, then the power exerted must be the same as on a level and

"W

n

W'a

3^^R

w ^^

+

5280

W2b

R

r.o

Tin

w
w

R +

■380
AV'a

R and consequently

W2

- -R
W

+

AY 2b

5380 W ■ 5380

From wdiich the value of R in terms of W AY^ and AA'^ is found,

W2b — AV^a

R = AA^

5380 (AA' '— AA^2j

Talcc now the former equation R

Wi
AV"

R +

from which a second value of R is obtained

AA^a

5380
AY W^a

5380 (W— AY'J

A. P. S.— VOL xir— B

, 1

Haupt.]

10

[Jan. 2 J

Placing tliese two vahiCB of K equal to each other,
there results W^a W^b—W^a

By substituting in the equation the values of "\Y^ "W^ a aud b, as deter,
mined by observation, the values of W, or the gross loud on a level can
bo asccrtniued.

By substituting the values of W W lY^ a and b, the value of B on the
power exerted by the engine is obtained.

By dividing this j)Owcr in pounds by the gross load on a level, tlic trac-
tile ],)ower per ton is determined.

As the iiower of an engine is always suflicient to slip the wheels on a
dry rail, the adhesion is equnl to the actual power exerted in moving the
train and divided by the w^eight on drives, gives the proportion between
adliesion and w^cight.

The angle of frietioii can be found when the tractive power per ton of
of 2000 lbs. on a level (T) has been deterniincd, by the equation.

A.ngle of friction expressed in feet per mile

T X 5280

o

000

It has been customary for engineers to consider the angle of friction as
16 to 18 feet per mile, the tractive power per ton on a level 8 pounds, and
the adhesion one-eighth the weight upon tlic drives; but to obtain reliable
data from the actual operation of roads running full trains, a letter was
addressed to A. J. Cassatt, Gcn'l Sup't of the Benna, B. B., who fui-
uished the following data:
A standard 10 wheel freight engine with 3 pairs of 4J feet drivers with

average water and coal, weighs

Weight on drivers,

Weight of tender with coal and water.

75,500 lbs.

53,000 "
50,000

Ci

Sucli an engine will Iianl on a moderately straight and level road 50

loaded ears of 40,000 Iby. eaeli- Groses load,
On a gnade of 10 feet to tlie mile, 4-^ ears,

ȣ u on a ic a

&c

00

i i

a

a

35
17

11

1002 tons.
922 "
7G2
403

282

i. C

And the engine would woik easier with 50 cars on iho level than in either
of the other eases and with most diilicuUy in the last.

Herman J. Lombaert, Esq., Vice President and former General Super-
intendent of Penna. R. 1?., gives as a iuU average load for actual work in
the usual conditions of the rail.

Tons.
Load on i)2^% ft. grade, 10 cai-s. Gross load of engine, 382

" " 10 " " 40 " " *' " 862

As it is proper to allow a margin for Hnfavorable condition of rails, the

calculations will be made on the data furnished by II. J. Li>mbaert.

Substituting the values of a b W^ W^, which are 10, 52^^^, 382 and 8G2,

the value of W, or the gross load on a kvol is found be 1210 tons.

.

- ^A

}

i

■

I

1871.]

11

[Reid

The value of II or the tractive power on a level, is 11,1G0 lbs., or 9/o
Ibs. ]3er ton.

The angle of friction is '^■"_;^^lZ^ =24.28 feet per iiulc.

2000

The adhesion is - ' or nearly one-fifth of \vei<:cht on drives.

53,000

From the data thus obtained a simple formula may be found to deter-
mine the load of the engine on any given inclination, a.
Let P = tractile power of engine on a level =- 11,1G0 lbs.
a = feet per mile of inclination.

Ayi = weight of train on incline a, including engine and tender.
Then W^ X 0.3 = power required to move W^ on level.

a

And ^y'

5280

OQOQ

gravity on incline a, in tons or AV^ '^ a, in x>ounds.

9.2W^ + ^^^*^AV\a

Or W

52S0
11,100

X)ower of engine

11,100 lbs.

9.2 f. 38a

If a be supposed equal to 48.50, or twice the angle of friction, the load
would be 404 tons nearly, or one-third the load on a level.

On a grade of 30 feet the load would bo 541 tons. The grade that would
require double the power of a grade of 30 feet would be 84J feet.

If the gross load of a train on a grade of 30 feet be 541 tons, the engine
and tender being 03 tons, the cars and contents will weigh 4T8 tons, or if
18,000 lbs. be allowed for each car and 32,000 lbs. for load, the number of
cars will be 37 and the net load 297 tons, weight of cars 248 tons.

If the return cars shall be oidy one-fourth loaded, which is probably a
full proportion for the Shenadoah Valley extension, the gross weight of
the trains would be 380 tons.

The inclijiatiou that would ehiploy the full power of the engine in haul-
ing 380 tons, would be 53 feet.

The inclination that would employ the full power of an assistant engine

in hauling a gross load of 380 tons, would be 130 feet, but allowance must

be made for the weight of the assistant engine.
;

r

The following description of Indian sculpture on the banks
of the Monongahela Eiver, by Jos. D. Ecid, was received
through Prof. Cope, accompanied by a drawing of the same.

Sketch and Dkscripttoi^ of a Cai^tet) Hock on tJie bank of ilie 3fo~

nonrjijJiGla River, Pa., by JosEru D. I^eid.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan. 30, 1871.)

The engraving represents the face of a large rock lying on the east
bluir of the ]\Ionongahela River, in 1^'ayette County, rcnasylvania, oppo-
site the villno;e of MillsborouHi and the mouth of Ten Mile Creek,

1 J

1 A

il

I !

4 ?

Kcid.]

12

[Jiin. 201S71.

Originally there were three rocic?;, but after the settlement of the coun-
try, two of them \Tere hvoken up and used in building a mill dam. At
that time no one valued or took any interest in them, so no record was
kept other than the fact that they were larger, and the figures more nu-
merous than on the one remaining. This is in its original position, partly
buried in the earth and so worn by the elements that the lignres have be-
come indistinct, and some i)erhaps entirely obliterated.

The Indians that inhabited this part of the country at the time of its
settlement by the whites, had no legend connected with the rock, nor
had they used it for any purpose. The river bank nt this point and for
a mile above and below is nearly a perpendicular blutf, three hundred
feet high, which is broken by a single ravine, and up this by a narrow
winding patli, apparently made by the same people that carved the hgures
on the rock, it may be reached directly from the river. A carriage road
that leaves the river opposite Fredericktown, and winds around behind
the bluir, passes within a few hundred yards of it.

The rock is sandstone, of the same formation as that overlying the coal
bed below ; tlie surface is nearly flat, of an area of twenty by twenty-four
feet, with a depression diagonally across, in a line witli the three cups or
holloAvs, the largest of which is one foot in diau:ieter, the middle one six
inchcB, and the other three inches, and about the same in depth. The de-
pression or gutter and cups, are discolored, apiiarently by the blood of
the victims that the inhabitants ofTe.'.'d as sacriiices to their deity.

The south end of the rock is three feet above the ground, with a hog-
like figure carved upon it. The foot and liand prints are deeper and
more perfect than the other figures, and in no way can I better describe
them than they present the appearance of having been made by pressing
the naked feet and hands upon soft clny, so perfect arc some of the im-
pressions. This is particularly the case with one foot-print, with a largo
toe on each side of the foot, and a hand-print with a thundj on both sides.

The largest impressions of feet measure fourteen inches in length,
eight inches across the toes, and four inches across the heel, the other
foot-prints vai'y in size from tbat of a full grown man to a child five years
of age; the foot-priuts of s>xuirrels are numerous and cross the rock in
every direction, not all that were on the rock being represented in the en-
graving. A single track of an animal with claws, and one intended to re-
present a buffalo track, but too small and no division of hoof, are also on
the rock. The bird tracks are quite disthict and six inches in length; the
three links have apparently been made recently. The other figures are
outlines, and whether made as a pastime b^ some Indian artist or as the
hierogly])hic history of an Indian race, I leave others to determine.

Two miles down the river from the rock is the site of an old Indian
town and grave-yard, winch covers an area' of liftcen or twenty acres.
There may be found pieces of sun dried pottery made of clay and minute
fragments of muscle shells, pipes of the same material, and some of soap
stone, axes of red ^jasper as hard as steel, arrowheads of flint, and circu-
lar flat sandstones, two of six inches in diameter and from one-fourth of

13

an inch to one iucli in tliickuess, some of them with a liole in the centre
and with a worn appearance of the edge.

The graves are covered with fiat stones taken from the cliff above the
town; iliey were phxced about two feet below tlie surface, and being out
of reach of tlie plow, the graves are seldom disturbed; one opened a few
years since, exposed the skeleton of a female in a sitting position with a
child in her arms, the skull of the child stuck to the stone, and when ex-
posed to the air for a few minutes a slight puff of whid carried it away
in a little ciond of dust. The skeletons are found in a sitting position
facing the east and after being exposed a short time fall to dust. ]S'otli~
ing besides pieces of charcoal have been found in the graves Avith the
bones. (Sec Pkite I.)

Tlie followiBg members ^vere nominated and elected to
serve on tlie Standing Committees for the year :—

Finance.— lh\ Fraley, Mr. B. K. Price, Mr. Marsh.
PuUkation.—VmL Trego, Mr. E. K. Trice, Dr. Carson,

Mr. Fraley, Mr. W. M. Tilghman.

IlaU.—Gen. Tyndale, Mr. E. Iloivper, Mr. S. W. Roberts.
Library.— Dt. Bell, Dr. Coates, lix. E. K. Price, Dr. Carson,

Dr. Krauth.

On motion of the Secretary, the reading of the list of mem-
bers was postponed to the next stated meeting.

Pending nominations Xos. C61 to C68, and new nominations

Fos. GG9, G:0, were read.

Balloting tlicn proceeded; and there being no other busi-
ness, the baHot-boxes were examined by tiie presiding offi-
cers, who declared the foflowing named persons duly elected
members of the Society :

M. Es:[nirox de Parieu, of France.

Mr. W. T. Roepper, of Bethlehem.

^U^v. W. C. Cattell, of Easton, Pa., Pres. Lafayette Coll.

Mr. II. II. Phillips, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Thos. Meehan, of Germantown.

Gen. George G. Meade, of Philadelphia, U. S. A.

Incut. C. E. Dutton, of Franlcforcl, Pa.

Mr. Ed. Goodfellow, of Philadelphia, U. S. Coast Survey.
And the Society was adjourned.

-V" -J—- - -^-j

11

Stated Meeting^ Fehruary 3, 1871.

Present, twelve members.

Me. FealeYj Yice President, in the Chair.

Mr. Goodfellow, a neivly elected member, was presented to
the presiding officer, and took his seat.

Letters accepting membership were received from Mr. W.
Thos. Eoepper, dated Bethleliem, Jan. 30 ; from C. E. Dut-
ton, Lieut, of Ordnance U. S. A., Frankford Arsenal, Jan. 30 ;
from Thos. Meehan, dated Germantown, Jan. 2G; from W. C.
Cattcll, dated Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., Jan'y 23 ; from
Edw^ard Goodfellow, dated 927 Clinton Street, Pbila., Jan'y
23 ; and from Geo. G. Meade, Mnj. Gen. U. S. A., dated Phila.,

Jan'y 30, 1871.

I r

■ J

A letter w^as received from Wm. Lowber, M. I)., dated 319
S. 16tli Street, Pliila., Jany 8, 1871, oft'ering for the accept-
ance of the Society the glass cylinder of the electrical machiiie
belonging to his great-grandfather, David Kittenhouse, an
early President of the Society. On motion, the offer Avas ac-
cepted, and the Cui'ators were desired to return to Dr. Lowber
the thanks of the Socictv.

A letter was received from Wm. Ilitchman, M. D., dated

29 Erskine Street, Liverpool, Eng., January, respecting the
organization ot a Liverpool Anthropological Society.

Donations for the Library w^crc received from the Italian
Committee of Geoloow, the Acadcmia dei Lincei at Rome, the
Berlin Academy, the London Astronomical Society, the Essex
Institute, the Boston Natural History Society, the American
Journal of Science, the Franklin Institute, Penn Monthly,
Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind, American Journal of
Pharmacy, and London Nature.

:

>

15

']'he death of Georo'c Ticknor, of Boston, a member of the
Society, Jan. 26tli, aged 80 years, Avas announced by the Se-
cretary.

On motion, Dr. IT. Ilartsliorne was appointed to prepare an
obituary notice of the late Dr. Rhoads.

r

F

On motion, Prof. Kendall was appointed to prepare an obit-
uary notice of the late Prof. Chauvenet.

Mr. Cope reported that Mr. McNeil was prosecuting his re-
searches in Panama, and had sent home fossils, showing
among other things, that the back bone or water shed of the
Isthmus was an ancient coral reef, many of the corals beii)'::!:
in an excellently w^ell preserved condition.

I

/

THE PORT KENNEDY BONE CAVERN.

Prof. Cope announced the discovery of a bone cave by Mr. Cliarles M.
Wlicatley, in the Calciferous limestone, at a point about 2o miles N. W.
of Phlladelpliia.

There h;id been obtained numerous remains of plants, and insects, -svith
about thirty species of 'certehrata.

These consisted of RcptileSj Birds and Mammals. The first were ser-
pents, and tortoises of sever d species, mostly harmless. Tlie birds in-
cluded a turkey and snipe. The manimalian remains were most numer-
ous, embracing various forms.

There were Bodentia, of American types, as Ilesperomys, Fiber, etc. ;
also SciuruSj Lepus, etc.

There were Ruminants, several tapirs, and a snndl horse. Two carni-
voxes of large si^e, one a cat, the other a bear, Ursits pristinxts of Leidy,
of a remarkable type, and entirely distinct from tlie cave bear, or living
species of Europe and America. Remains of several Sloths were discov-
ered, -whicli were mostly of gigantic size. These were referable to at
least three species, one Merjalony.'c tclieatlcyi was new, and t\vo MylodoiiSy
one of them probably also new to science. AVith them occurred the teeth
and tusks of the Triloplwdon oMoU'cus (Mastodon). This animal had pro-
bably fallen in, as the cave was rather a fissure at the point examined.

The bones were not gnawed. The fissure was 40 feet deep, 15 feet in
width, and of unknown length. Above the cave deposit, it was filled
with wash from neighboring hills of Triassic age.

> ^

I I

v^

r ,

I !

/

16

i ' I

Mr. Lesley desired to place on record the recent exposure of a bed ot
solid Ijrown liematite iron ore, at the npi^er limit of Ko. II, Lower Silu-
rian Limestone Formation, in Leatlicrcraclvcr Cove, Morrison's Cove,
Middle Pennsylvania, of very unusual size. The bed is nearly vertical
and 72 feet thick, where cut across by a water drift. No such deposit
has been before discovered at this horizon, in a situation favorable for
exact measurement.

Pending nominations G69, 670 were read, and t"he reading
of the list of members was postponed, and the Society was
adjourned.

Stated Meeting^ Felmiary 17, 1871.

Present, ten members.

Mr. Praley, Yicc President, in the Chair.

Mr. Carey accepted by letter, the appointment to prepare
an obituary notice of Mr. ColwelL

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the ISTcav

ii

Yorl

New Jersey, and Georgia Historical Societies

o

; u

Cincinnati Observatory (85) ; Smitlisonian Institution (84 and
XIV. 2), and Eeiclicnbach K. II. Society (78, 79, 80).

Donations for tlie Library were received from the Eoyal
Academy and Observatory at Turin, Levant Herald at Con-
stantinople, London Nature, ridladclpbia Journal of Phar-
macy, Medical News, McOalla & Stavcly, the Librarian of
Concrrcss, and the Wisconsin State Historical Society.

No. 85 of the rroceeclings, just published, was laid on the

' The death of John F. James, a member of the Society, at
rhiladelphia, Tob'y 5, was announced by the Secretary.

Mr. Lesley asked for information respecting the alleged dis-
covery of a hewn cave and crypt witli hieroglyphics, skele-
tons, vases, &c., lately made by a railroad engineering party

Feb. 17, 1871. J

17

[Emerson.

{

I

ill Iowa ; and connected it with Baron Burck's account of the
traditions he found amono^ the Aztecs, of the mi2:ratioa of
that race or tribe from the Northeast or Upper Mississippi
and Missouri country.

Mr. Coxe described a locality at Baker's Eun, on the West
Branch of the Susquehanna, where the great freshets of 186t>
uncovered ancient heartlis and numerous lara'e vases, all of
which were soon broken and scattered by the curious.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Board of officers
were read.

h

Dr. Emerson introduced the subject of Lunar Influence, or
supposed influence, upon the conditions of wet or dry weather.

On LuNAii Influence tipori the Conditiom of Wet or Dry Weather,

by Dk. KMKiisoN.

[Read before the American Philosophical Society. February 17, 1871.)

That the moon exerts such an influence, he said, is a very old opinion,
widely spread at the present day, and even maintained by many distin-
guished philosophers. A great deal of attention has been devoted to
tabulating atmospheric observations in relation to the conditions of the
weather at the rpiartcrly changes of the moon. The results of such labo-
rious investigations have, however, not been found to agree, some reports
seeming to favor the existence of lunar inliucncc in produchig wet and
dry weather^ and others, to show that no such influences are exerted by
the moon upon the hygromctric conditions of our atmosphere. Among
the many who have engaged in investigating this subject I ^vi^ only re-
fer to the celebrated Italian i)]iilosopher Toaldo, whose observations were
extended through a period of forty-five years, and to Pilgram, v^^liose ob-
servations were extended through a period of fifty-two years. For some
reason w^hich I shall not attempt to explain or examine, the conclusions
of these indefatigable observers and inquirers were the very opposite of
each other.

The circumstance Avliich has perhaps contribuk'd most to strengthen
the belief in lunar influence upon the weather, is the well known agency
exerted by the satelite npon the ocean and atmosphere, in the production
of tides and barometrical fluctuations. Both of these phenomena are at-
tributable to the force of. gravitation, acting between the earth and moon,
and giving rise to ocean and atmospheric waves.

The atmosphere surrounding our earth consists : first, of a mixture of
permanently elastic gases ; and secondly, of a changeable atmosi)here of
watery vapor, depending for its suspension entirely upon heat. Tlds

I

A. P. S.— VOL. XII — 0

•- -r-J _ _

^^Mjy IT ^__

I.I

II

M

iHf

■h^

f

Emerson. ]

18

[Feb. "J7, 1871.

theory of an independent atmospliere of vapor owing its suspension to
heat alone, was estahlished by Dalton, and is as incontestible as the
theory of gravitation established by Newton.

"When watery vapor suspended in the air loses the amount of heat ne-
cessary for its suspension, or, in other words, wJien the temperature is
reduced to the "Dew-point," vapor is immediately condensed into mist,
deAV, clouds and rain. Now there is good reason to believe that the moon
exerts no appreciable influence, directly or indirectly, upon the tempera-
ture of our atmosphere.

Some who have attempted to investigate this point by using reflectors-
and very deUcate thermometers, liave been led to the absurd conclusion
that the moon's rays emitted cold. The marked depression observed in.
the thermometers exposed to the lunar rays, was in no wise produced by
these, but by radiation of heat from the instruments into a clear shy.

In many parts of the surface of our globe, extensive regions exist in.
which it seldom or never rains, as in Lower Egypt. But in such places
tlie atmosphere is very dry, and no local causes exist, sucli as mountains
or hills, to interfere with the regular currents of the atmosphere and
favor the mixture of strata of differcjit temperatures. Consequently,.

rain rarely falls.

In other regions, in the Tropics, for example, there are extens-ive spaces
in mid-ocean embracing many thousands of square miles, w^herc the tem-
peratures of the sea and atmosphere remain constantly within one or twO'
degrees of each other, with the atmosphere of vapor close upon the
"Dew-point." Here, if anywhere, the moon might be expected to pro-
dirce changes in the hygrornetric conditions of the atmosphere. But for
months continued, there is no rain or other proof of lunar influence upon
the weather. It is only in the extra-tropical latitudes where many other
active agencies exist to disturb the equilibrium of atmospheric tempera-
ture, that the advocates of lunar infUicnce assume to find evidence in fa-
vor of their views.

The power exercised by ilie moon upon bodies of water and permanent
elastic gases on the surface of our planet, is solely derived from the law
o£ gravitaUo7ij which exercises no iniluence, direct or indirect, in suspend-
ing or condensing vapor, or controlling the conditions of weather as to-
wet or dry. These conditions arc brought about solely through changes
of temperature, during the operations of which the moon remains a silent
spectator, taking no active part, so far as the condensation of vapor is

concerned.

Pending nominations 669, 670 were read.

On motion of Mr. Winsor, the Library Committee were in-
structed to report npon the subject of completing and pul>
lishing the Catalogue of the Society's books and pamphlets.

Aiul the meeting was adjoarned.

I

^-^'tL'S^O

■"^cSWflKtftS^^^c - ?^

.Dec. 2,1870.]

19

[T'epper.

A CASE

OF UNIVEIISAL HYPEROSTOSIS, xVSSOCIATED WITH OSTEO-
POROSIS, WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIMENS, by

J. EwiNG Meaks, M. D., W. W. Ivi-:i:x, :\r. J)., Harrison Allen,
M. D., and William PEiTEii, >[. D.

{Bead before the American PJdlosoi'>Jucal Society, Dec. 2, 1870.)

The nnelcrsigned, to whom were rcfen-ed the above spceimena, presented
by a friend to Dr. J. Ewing- Alcars, have carefully examined them, and
have i:)rcparcd tlic following Report :—

In the investigation of the subject, avc have prepared as full a history
of the case as could be obtained, a detailed account of the general ana-
tomical characters of the disease, and of the peculiarities of each individ-
ual bone, as well as of the microscopic appearances, have consulted the
works and periodicals in various languages accessible iu this city, and
have examined all the specimens contained in the Aluseums of the Col-
lege of Physicians, Academy of Natural Sciences, University of Pennsyl-
vania, Jefferson Medical College, and also the hospital and private collec-
tions in the citv.

V

We have nowhere found specimens of this disease, or descriptions of
such, at all equalling in extent and severity these here described.

The only similar case, though far less in degree and extent (skeleton
imperfect), is found in Yirchow's Archives, Vol. 4^3, 18GS, i*. 470, plate
No. 12, although we have met with specimens and descriptions of skulls
and bones which afford evidences of a limited development of the same
disease.

Of the pathology of the disease, as well as of the anatomical appear-
ances (UG), we have found the best descriptions in Lobstein, Traite
d'anatomie pathologique, Tom. II, p, IIG ; Royer, Sur Ics Maladies,
Chirurgicales, Tom. Ill, p. 571 ; Paget, Surg. Path. Eng. Ed., pp. 301-2,
and fig. 40 ; Stanley on the Bones ; S. Solly, ^led.-Chir. Trans., Vol. 27 ;
Forster Ilandbucli der Path. Anat., Bd. I, S. 219-02, and Bd. II, S.
850-4 ; R. Volkmann, in Pitha und Billroth's llandb. der Chirnrgie, Bd.
II, S. 249-58; Oeffinger, Virchow's xVrehiv, Rd. 43, S. 470; Haubner,
Canstatt's Jahrcsbcricht, 1854, Bd. 27, S. 23-4 ; Virchow, Die Krankliaf-
ten GeschwiVlste, Bd, II, Voriesung XVII.

HISTORY OF THE CASE.

Fully recognizing the importance the history of the case lias in the dis-
cussion of the Etiology and Pathology of the disease, we regret our inabil-
ity to add any information to the statement given at the time of the
preaentaticn of the specimens, which is as follows: —

A. ^T. aet, 14, native of England — occupation farm boy — came from
England to this country when very young — father died in November,
1869, of Phthisis, aged 57 — mother died in 1867, cause of death not as-
certained— has one brotlier and one sister, both young and healthy. In
September, 180G, while engaged at work on the farm, noticed swelling

■^Vtsr^i- -

t

Pcpp<n\]

20

[Dec. 2,

begiiHiing in the face, and also, that in stooping, face felt puckered and
■wrinkled, while the effort to regain the erect position gave intense pain
along the entire spinal eohnnn. Subsequently the fore-arms became sore
and swollen, was placed under treatment, which was of such decided
benefit that he thought himself entirely well, and in March, 1867, re-
sumed his farm duties ; about two months later the symptoms returned
in an aggravated degree, the feet and then, in succession, the legs and
thighs becoming enlarged and very painful ; under the influence of con-
stant bandaging the swelling diminished; his appetite became impaired,
and he died from exhaustion Feb'y 8th, 18G8. The treatment adopted
was mostly of a tonic character.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIMEN

(See Plates I. and II.)

I. WHAT 310KES ARE WA^"TINO.

We have tlie entire skeleton except the following bones :

Yertcbne — 5th and 7th cervical.

1st and 10th dorsal.

2d lumbar.

3d and 4th sacral.

all the coccygeal.
Sternum, gladiolus and ensiform.
Hyoid bone.
Kight Patella.

Hands, all wanting save the right scaphoid.
Eeet, all wanting save left calcis.

Five metacarpal and metatarsal bones and eight i^halanges are pre-
served, but, except the two metatarsals of the groat toe, they can seared/
be designated, they are so greatly deformed.

II. THEIR CONDITION.

r

Unfortunately, by the prolonged brjiling to which they were sub-
jected before coming into our jjossession, the bones have lost proba-
bly all their animal matter, and arc now almost as friable as if they had
been burned. By removing the n:iarrow, also, this has rendered the
pathology of the disease much less clear and the microscopic examin-
ation much less valuable than it would otherwise have been. Moreover,
it has removed probably all the gelatine, so that the chemical examina-
tion and the specific gravity would be worthless. Even the weights are,
by reason of this misfortune, only of slight value. All the epiphyses too,
except the coracoid process of the scapula, arc scx>arated from the shafts or
bodies, and in some bones even integral })arts are separated, e. g. the sa-
cruth is divided into its component vertebrai and the innominate bone
into two pieces. Many of the epiphyses are jn-escrved, as will be indi-
cated in describing each bone. The epiphyses have attached to them in
many places tlie dried gelatinous articular cartilages of a transparent

*

1870. ]

21

[I'epper.

I

brown color, and when an epiphysis has been incompletely ossified, the
cartilaginous i^ortiou presents itself as a similar dried gelaiinons mass.
Tlie ends of the shafts of the long bones are very ragged also, the can-
cellatcd substance being exposed and more or less broken.

/

III. WEIGHTS A^"D MEASUIIEMENTS.

In order (.o have some relative standard of weight, we have also
weighed the bones of a girl of about seventeen. But, it must bo
observed, that all these but the scapula (which wanted the acromion epi-
physis) were Aveighed with all the epiphyses. These healthy bones
were rather slender, but were also longer than the diseased bones (the
diseased and healthy femurs being 14J and 1(3 inches resi^ectively, ex-
cluding the lower epiphyses).

Diseased Bones,

Healthy Bones.

Femur (without lower epipliysis) 8 oz. Do (with all epiphyses) 8 oz, St} drras.

Tibia ( " '* ^' )5-i '' Do

Humerus (with all epiphyses) 3^ " Do

Kadius (without epiphyses) 1} " Do

Ulna (without lower epiphysis) 3 *' Do

Clavicle ( " inner '' ) i ''

Scapula ( " all epiphyses

except coracoid) 1 "

Fibula (without both epiphyses) 1^ '' Do

i s

J*

5

^•2

J -■

k «

a

b i

2

^•2

a

i 4

i 4

0

a

i .

ii

u

a

71

The following are the nieasurcnicnts in circumference of the bones, the
same healthy skeleton as before being used for comparison.

Diseased Bones.

Healthy Bones.

Femur (middle),

5

in

'I'ibia "

4J

4 i

(at tubercle),

H

4;

Humerus (middle),

41

u

(above condyles).

;>

ii

Kadius (middle),

^4

u

(lower fourth),

4i

u

Ulna ( '■ and niiddie),

ii

(just below corocoid),

4*

t>

Fibula (lower fourth),

H

i i

Clavicle (acromial extremity),

H

a

2^

in.

n

47

3

H

H

n

H

1-5.

n

n

The following are the diameters. In general the original limits of the
bone were pretty easily distinguished. The external line of demarcation
in the femur and the posterior in the tibia are so indistinct that the diam-
eters of the original bones are not wholly reliable. All the diameters are
derived from longitxulinal sections by a circular sa-w, and they are all at
the middle unless otherwise stated.

roi^iior.]

I Dec. 2,

Original Bone.

Femur,
Tibia,
Ilumenus,
Ivsidins (middle),

(upper tliird),
(lower tlnrdj,
Ulna (middle),

(at corfjiioid),

(lower third),

Metacarpal (great toe),

Phalanx

Clavicle,

Fihula (upper c^: lower tluids]

Ilium ( 1 in. above acetabu-
lum))

1

in

t •

((

u

7

<c

1

^£

A

^£

4«

^ ■

±£

3
S

a

I
2

;i

7

4 C

3

{£

u

9

r ^ M ^^_

J 1)

a

Diseased Bone,
1|- hi.

1 ;i ( <

1 ' "
1 tt

K

1i **
^4

1

i i

1

£b

1 1 ti'
"1 ?)

] I U
4

7 U
H

AddiL

ion

hy Disease.

i

in.

^

9

1 0

.'3

H

5

H

3

8

1

w-r

9

1 ft

■S

H

k

J

H

3

IS"

1

4

3

'8

7

1 (i

5

££

1 6

IV. Ge]sp:jul DESCiarxTOx.

The bones which have suhcred the most are the clavicle, humerus, ra-
dius, ulna, femur, tibia, hbula, metncarpnls, or-tarsals and phalnngos of
both hand and foot. These are diseased in almost the entire length of
their shafts. The radius and ulna have sulfcred rather more than any of
the other bones just named. All the oilier bones of the trunk have suf-
fered to some extent, those of the skuil but very litlle or not at all.

Comparing the upper and the lower extremities, there is no appreciable
dilVerence in the violence of the disease.

Comparuig the two sides externally, not only is there no diifercnee in
the extent and character of the disease, but there is the most remarkable
symmetry of the corresponding, diseased bones, whicli maybe traced even
to details. (Figs. 0 and 10.) The disease begins and ends on both sides
at corresponding points, it changes in character from simple porosity
to the growth of osteophytes at coi'responding points; it on one side
the posterior part of the bone is most diseased, the same is true of
the other side ; if the osteophyte growth is continuous or interrupted
on one bone (fibula Fig. 18) it is so on the opposite one; if one is
unusually diseased at a tendinous or aponeurotic insertion, <o is its
mate ; if a groove or a variation in color exist on the one side, the same
will be found on the other side ; even of single marked spicula- of bone
the same may be said ; so that a description of one side will answer for
both, minute diiferences being noted as they occur.

The main violence of the disease is expended on tlie shafts of the long
bones. The epiphyses, of which the most important remain, t. y. those
of the femur, tibia, Inuuerus, tfcc. , show we may almost say no disease. The
lower epiphysis of the femur is slightly porous in the usually compact
layer of the articular surface, but so hue is the porosity and so slight the
disease that it would not be observed save on a most careful examination.

i
i

s

I IT. t\ ^

1870.]

>;]

[L'cppcr

The otlier epiphyses show occasionally still slighter disease. Indeed it is
a question whether thivS be not the result of the prolonged boiling. The
bones of the trunk ai-e but little affected except the sternum, which must
have suffered severely, the manubrium being very porous and much
thickened. The bones of the head are scarcely at all affected.

The point of greatest development of the disease varies with its char-
acter. 1-'. The tliickeuing is most developed in the middle of the shafts,
and here generally the sclerosis is furthest advanced. (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 21.)
'2.O. The porosity is not noticeably greater in any particular parts of the
shafts, but seems externahy to be equally diffused, go. The osteophytes
follow a marked law in their development. They are most developed
■where the muscles, aponeuroses, fasciae. tVc, are attached, e. g. the
linea aspera, interosscus ridges of the tibia and ilbuln, radius and ulna,
the insertion of the deltoid, biceps and brachialls anticus, the condyloid
ridges of the humerus. But it is not aUvays true conversely, that
where a large muscle is attached there must be a largo osteophyte
growth, e. g. tliere are none at tlie origins of the pcctoralis major
;and sterno-mastoid. the supra- and infra-spinatus, the insertion of the
-quadratus fenioris, <tc. One class of exceptions is, however, to be
jiotcd, viz : that at the attachment of those juuscles and ligaments that
are cimnected to epiphyses, there is genernlly no disease, e. g. the nuiscu-
lar attachments to the greater and lesser trochanters, the greater and
lesser tuberosities, tubercle of the tibia, the tuber ischii and nearly all
the ligaments. The epiphyses and their attached parts are very nearly
-all quite free from disease, though it may be largely developed in their
immediate neighborhood.

The direction of the nutritious artery seems to have liad no influence
'On the development of the disease either in its extent ur degree.

The porosity varies in its character, and usually any one bone will show
all its varieties. 1-, The surface of the bone presents a very fine cribri-
form appearance, resembling pumice stone. When magnified six or eight
times this is seen to consist of a stout network of bone perforated by nu-
■merous small foramina, which are generally tolerably circulnr, and do n^t
-communicate one with another. (Fig. 24.) 2^. It may be of a fmer vel-
vety appearance. This by the same power is seen to consist of the same
network of bone, whose very large foramina or meslies now communi-
cate and are therefore very ii-regular in foini, while the ridges forming
the bony net-work are very thin and form relatively high wahs between
the adjacent meshes. Sometimes these ridges assume a tolerably regu-
lar parallelism, giving a striated appearance to the }iart. 3^. A coarser
appearance is often produced by a similar honey-combing with large
furamiiui or meshes, deep and irregular, varying in size from a horse-hair
to a line in diameter with the tlrst or second variety existing in the inter-
vening^ ridges. (See lower end of Humerus, Fig. 1.) 4^. The surface is
'Often pierced more or less sparsely by small foramina about the size of a

;horse-hair. (Fig. 20.)

The osteophytes vary greatly also in their character. In shape they

I

Peppor-3

24

[Dec. 2,

J iBcli square.

are either pointed, flat, or clubbed, sessile or pedunculated. They fre-
queutly form larger or smaller scales, ■which cover more or less of tlie
bone. They vary from the smallest size visible up to J inch in length or

They are often compound, smaller ones growing- from
larger ones as a base. Imbrication is not unusually a marked feature^
and whether imbricated or not, their direction or "trend" almost always
follows that of the fibres attached at that point. Tliis is very marked
where adjacent muscles run in different directions, e. g. the flexor attach-
ments of the radius and ulna as contrasted with that of the pronater
quadratus. (Figs. 11 and 15.) The grooves between the osteophytes
have sometimes rolling edges, sometimes are as sharp as if cut with a
knife, and often lie closely together aud parallel ; they are apparently
made in many cases by the numerous small vessels. All of the osteo-
phytes arc more or less porous.

The color is usually normal, but in some places is of varying shades of

brown .

On a section the whole bone is seen to be encased with anew formation
of bone. Tliis is true not only of the long bones but also of the scapulas
and ossa innorainata. Viewing these bones and also many parts of the
shafts of the long bones on the surface, one would suppose he. had simj^ly
to do -with the original thickened bone \vhich had undergone this porous
change. But a section shows that tliere is a complete new formation
which is added layer after layer around the old bone. These layers (except-
ing where sclerosis has taken place) are separated by interspaces sometimes
iust appreciable to the eye, sometimes a quarter of an inch wide. (Fig.l7).
The outer layer is often very tliiii, but presents to the eye that deceptive
appearance of apparent compact tissue which has simply become porous.
"Where sclerosis has taken place or osteophytes are developed, of course
the thickness of the outer layer is either greatly increased or else unde-
terminable. The other layers also vary in thickness from the develop-
ment of the sclerosis from the thinnest possible to one or two lines.
*' These layers may sometimes be traced into continuity with tJiose form-
ing the healthy portion of the wall" - of the original bune, especially at the
extremities of the shaft. (Fig, 4.) At these points, starting from the ori-
ginal compact tissue, the several layers of the encasing new formation grad-
ually become more and more widely separated or new layers may appear,
thus producing a very great thickening at the centre, while at the ends of
the shaft the thickening gradually (sometimes suddenly) diminishes. The
interspaces between the layers are sometimes for even an inch wholly
void, but they are generally filled with intervening trabeculya of bone^
which form a cancellated tissue and also support the superimposed layer
to which they are alw^ays perpendicular. To a very large extent these
layers have been welded together by sclerosis, and sometimes the new
growth and the oj igiual bone present no line of demarcation by which
they can be distinguished. Where this solidification has taken place, the
cut surface instead of the uniform ivory-like solidity of normal compact

* I'aget. Surs. Path. Eng. Eii, 18^3, p. 301-2, iim\ f)g. 40.

!
s

Tf-

w

^^^r-

iV^^BU"

1870.]

[Pepx)er.

i

tissue presents a j;r;inu]ar appearance, as if the cancelli of the interspaces
were not soHdly filled up. The process of sclerosis not infrequently dips
down like a cone whose hase is of considerahle extent at the ^^nrface of
the new growtli and whose apex just touclies, or is somethues welded with
the original compact tissue. (Fig. 21.) Ebuvnation has nowhere taken

place.

The original hone, too, has undergone marked changes. Its limits are
generally pretty well detined, hut the compact tissue of which its wall
once consisted, is now cancellated, to a greater or loss degree (osteo-spon-
giosis). Sometimes all a})pearancc of compact tissue, save a mere worm-
eaten porous external him, hns disappeared. Sometimes no cancellation
appears, but the old and new growths are welded together. The cancelli
of the once compact tissue of the old bone always run 'parallel with the
axis of the bone, and are thus easily distinguished from those of the spaces
between the laminjc of the new growth which run at rigid angles to the
surface of the bone. (Figs. 4 and 17.) Tlie old cancellated tissue has
often very large cancelli and in some cases has disap])eared, leaving a
wider medullary canal than is normal.

The epiphyses do not appear materially altered on section.

Y. DESCKirTxox of Individual Bonnes.

1. Head. — All the bones of the head are present, completely disarticu-
lated. The spheno-occipital suture was not ossified. !N"o sections were
made of these bones, and the external appearaiices alone are described.

(a) Frontal. The roof of the orbit, especially in the fossfe for the
lachrynuxl glands, is somewhat porous. Internally the porosity appears
over various parts of the perpendicular portion. The irregular striated
appearance from largo numbers of fine grooves is marked, and sclerosis
seems to have made considerable progress.

(b) Parietal. Externally slightly porous at the posterior border ; in-
ternally also over, say one-fifth of the surface, corresponding to the
protuberance.

(c) Occipital. Externally small scattered patches of porosity ; inter-
nally the same change is limited to the superior fossae and the groove for

the left lateral siuus.

(d) Sphenoid. Porosity of external surface of greater Avings, and also
in most of the pterygoid plates, which are somewhat thickened.

(e) Temporal. Slightly porous and thickened externally on s(iuamous
portion, and in the glenoid cavity and in the grooves for both lateral
sinuses.

(f) Sup. Max. Slightly porous on anterior surface, and at the tuber-
ositv. The alveoli are reticulated so as to resemble almost the meshes of

the pulmonary structure.

(g) Palate. Internally, slight porosity at the junction of the perpen-
dicular and horizontal portions.

(h) Inf. Max. Ascending ramus markedly tluckeued, and porous in-
ternally and externally; most developed at the centre of the ramus;

A. p. s. — VOL XII— D

' I

i'cpper.]

26

[T>CC.

hody siniilariy aftectod, principally between the mental foramen and tlio
■external oblique line. Alveoli like those of tlie npper jaw. This bone
has suffered more than any other bone of the skull.

Condition of Teetli.—-T\\Q teeth were all present, and were carefully ex-
amined. They were very brittle, so as to break across with little difftculty
.(see Micros. Ex.)^ but presented no peculiarity of sliape. The entire ab-
sence of tlic peculiar deformity of the incisors, noted by Hutchinson, of
London, as characteristic of hereditary syphilis, is to be especially marked
as it bears upon the question of causation of the morbid process.

2. Vertebra'. — The epiphysal plates of the bodies, and the epiphyses of
the transverse and spinous processes, arc ail gone. In the dorsal region
the groove between the three orighial parts in which the ossification takes
place, is very deep, but they are all united more or less. This groove
gradually disappears both above and below, none of the remaining cervi-
cal vertebne showing it, while iufcriorily it is visible as far as the first
sacral. On section the body is not much thickened, and no line of de-
marcation exists. ISTo sclerosis has taken place.

(a) Cervical. Scarcely noticeable porosity of the anterior surface of
body. Posterior arch of atlas is unusually thick and dense.

(b) Dorsal. Marked poi-osity of external surface of body, wJiich is
elevated above the surface left by the removal of the slightly overlapping
epiphysal plates, about one-half a line to a line. Spinous processes

slightly porous.

(c) Lumbar and Sacral. Same as dorsal ; the porosity of spinou:^ pxo-

cesses being more marked.

3. Sternum and Bibs. — (a) TIio manubrium only is present, and is very
thick and poixms. Ko osteophytes.

(b) The ribs have lost all their epiphyses. They are not n fleeted on the
external surface, save slightly in one or two instances. On the pleural
surface they are all porous, and often a little thickened. For about one
inch from the head the entire bone is thickened and porous.

4. Upper Exlrciiiities. — (a) Clavicle. The sternal epiphysis is wanting.
Wlicre the surface for the articulation with the acromion should be, there
is on each side an oval cup-like depression ^ X :^ in. and i in. deep. (Fig.
13.) Its walls arc perpendicular, its floor flat, and both are covered with
a tliin layer of compact tissue resembling that which covers all the ends of
the diaphyses of the other bones next the epiphysal cartilage. It was fllled,
when flrst seen, with a small mass of dried tissue resembling the epiphysal
cartilage already described. Possibly it may have been an unusual third
centre of ossiflcation for this bone. It was occupied, certainly, by some
substance separate from the shaft of the clavicle, cither a third centre of
ossification, or a projecting piece of the acromion. If the former, it is a
very unusual place for a supernumerary epiphysis.

The whole bone is thickened to about twice its normal width, and its
surface is coarsely porous throughout. At the insertion of the ligaments
on the under surface, the porosity is quite fine and velvety. At the inner
half of the origin of the deltoid there are twelve to twenty stout and well

1^-.

1
i

1870. ]

27

[Tcppcr.

■

developed osteophytes. A few also exist at the middle of tlie insertion of
the trapezius. The section shows the original bone distinct from the
new growth at all points. The laminje of tlie new growth are very dis-
tinct at most points. A large part of those of the under surface are more
or less closely united by partial sclerosis. The original bony tissue is

relatively but little altered.

(b) Scapula. The coracoid process is one-third united to the bone, but.
wants the epiphysis developed on it at about seventeen years of age. All
the other epiphyses arc absent.

The bone is porous throughout, save at the centre of the infra-spinous
fossa ; generally of the coarse variety, but very fine iu certain spo^s. The
whole bone is somewhat thickened, as can be seen without any section,
at its posterior border and on the spine. (Fig. 23.) The latter being to a
great extent denuded of the outermost compact, yet porous layer of the
new growth, shows the reticulated trabectdre -wlucli supported it, and
throu'di their meshes the old external compact layer of tlie original bone
now all worm eaten and very thiu. 'I'his is especially well seen at the two
extremities of the spine. The axillary border of the bone is three or four
times as thick as'is normal, has a few coarse osteophytes, and a very deep
and wide groove for tlie dorsalis scapuke artery.

(c) ITumei'US. All tlie epiphyses are preserved except that of the in-
ternal condyle. The trochlear surface projects only to a level witli the

radial.

The whole shaft (Figs. 1 and 2) is involved in the disease, the least

at the upper fourth, the other three-fourths being about alike. The
porosity is almost wholly very line or velvety. About two inches below
the head, at the insertion of the Pect. maj., the anterior Incipital ridge is
greatly thickened (especially on the right side). It is continuous with a
very large elevated surfuce (2 x 1^ in.) at the insertion of the deltoid. This
is covered with a large mass of not very large porous osteophytes whose
trend is generally upwards. One (r. side) or two (left) large flat imbricated
osteophytes marls' the posterior lip of the bicipital groove. At the musculo-
spiral groove, which is well marked, the bone is finely porous, but presents
no osteophytes. At the lower third, anteriorly, the bone presents numer-
ous osteophytes, sometimes smgle, but generally in grou])?. They are
sessile, porous, and in some cases imbricated ; their trend is generally
downwards, exeej:.t just above the epiphysis, where they are at right
angles to the bone. The two condyloid rirlges, especially the inner, are
greatly diseased. The external ridge (especially on the right side) has
several large porous sessile outgrowths with intervening grooves, the
largest groove about corresponding in position to the anastomotica magna
arterv. Tlic internal ridge up to the insertion of the coraco-brachialis is
covered with large knobby and porous, inibiicated osteophytes, continu-
ous with a similar remarkable growth on the posterior surface of the bone,
covering the origin of the internal head of the triceps, which extends to
the museulo-spiral groove above, and fades into simple porosity exter-
nally. At the ori'^'in of the external head of the triceps, there is also a

!

.] '

PcppC'.r. ]

28

t Dec. 2,

marked elevation covered witli pointed osteophytes^, and continuous with
that of the deltoid insertion. The trend of ali these osteophytes is down-
wards, and their color (especially on the right side) is a light brown.

The section (Figs. 3 and 4) shows tlie outline of the old bone obliterated
in the lower third, and only faintly visible in the upper two-thirds ante-
riorly. In the posterior upper two-thirds the laminae of the new growth
are admirably shown, though even here the sclerosis is in some parts far
advanced. The original compact Avail in the superior one-third, anterior-
ily, and two-thirds posteriorly, has almost disappeared, the cancellation
(spongiosis) is so great, and it is a typical illustration of this process in
various stages. The original cancellated structure is either fragmentary,
its cancelli being very largo, or else it has entirely vanished, leaving an
enlarged medullary canal.

(d) Radius (Figs. 0, 10 and H.) All the epiphyses are gone, save the-
left upper one. Instead of being rounded externally, and showing a sharp
interosseous ridge internally, it is almost cylindrical, increasing in diame-
ter from above downwards, At the bicipital tubercle there is a crest of
curved osteophytes under which, as in a cave, the tendon of the biceps was
inserted. The oblique line is marked by a series of knobby, porous, slightly
imbricated osteophytes, whose trend is downwards and inw^ards till they
reach the insertion of the pronator tere:^, where their size increases, and
their trend is upwards and outwards. The interosseous border is rounded
off and marked by a series of deeply imbricated laminated osteophytes, all
trending downwards, resembling a rounded surface deex>ly grooved by ob-
lique parallel cuts of a thin saw\ Where the pronater quadratus was at-
tached, a large number of osteophytes exist in ridges, which run lat-
terally. All the rest of the bone is thickened and porous, and where
tlie muscles took origin, is covered with porous osteophytes.

In section (Fig. 8) the outlines of the original bone are visible throutdi-
out ; the laminae of the new growth are marked ; the sclorosisis in various
stages, and anteriorly for some two inches the new and old growths are
almost welded together. The old compact tissue is wholly changed to
spongy, and the mcdallary 'canal is increased in size.

(e) Ulna (Figs. 14 and 15.) The loAver epiyhyses are absent. Like the
radius, the ulna is involved in its whole length, and is about twice its nor-
mal diameter. At the insertion of the brachialis anticus. a cup-like
depression surrounded by an elevated ridge of osteox)hytes, exists,
somewhat similar to that on the bicipital tubercle of the radius.
The anterior surface is covered with small x>orous osteophytes, w-itli
a slight downward imbrication. At the attachment of the pronater
quadratus they become more marked ia their development, and the
imbrication is external. The interossecus ridge is rounded off and
marked, as in the radius, but with several unusually large and deeply
imbricated osteophytes with a deep groove, probably that of the inter-
osseous artery. Externally a brown discoloration is seen, which is

the most noticeable on the right side. Posteriorly the bone is coarsely

i
I

I

^

il r

1870, j

29

[Tepper-

:

porous, but veiy few osteophytes exist, save on the lower third. The
intervening grooves run transversely, but are neither deeply nor sharply
cut.

On section (Figs. 10 and IT) the line of the original bone can be dis-
tinguished throughout ; the laminaj of the new growth are very marked ;
the sclorosis has welded together all the new layers anteriorly, and at
the junction of the upper and middle thirds, the new and old growths
are almost melted together both anteriorly and posteriorly. The inter-
space between the old bone and the first new lamina reaches one-fourth
of an inch in width just belo^v the olecranum, and the distinction between
the perpendicular trabeculse filling it up, and the longitudinal cancelli of
the once compact tissue of the old bone is very marked. The medullary
canal is scarcely, if at all, enlarged, and, indeed, at the point of greatest
sclerosis above named, the same process seems to have invaded the canal
itself.

5.

Lower Extre-mAiies. — (a) Innominate Bones. The ilium is separated
from the ischium and pubes, AvJiich are firmly and iiulistinguishably united
together at their rami, but at the acetabuUun are distinct. The Y-shaped
piece uniting them is prese.rved, and is loose on both sides. All the other
epiphyses are ]uissing. The bones are porous throughout but not to a
marked degree. The thickening varies from |- to f of an inch, being
greatest just above the acetabulum. On the ischium and pubos no osteo-
phytes exist, save one small lamina on the body of the right pubes. The
ilium is free from them except above the acetabulum for a considerable
space, on and around the reflected origin of the rectus, where large and
strong osteoi>hytes exist, with a trend inwards and upwards.

On section of the ilium, (Fig. 12) the external surfaces, wliich other-
wise would be thought to be the porous surfiice of the original bone, are
seen to be the outer layer of the new growth. The original compact tis-
sue has undergone spongiosis to a great extent. Sclerosis is furthest ad-
vanced just above the acetabulum.

(b) Femur (Figs. 0 and 7). All the epiphyses are separated. Both
heads and great trochanters and the left lower epiphysis are preserved.
The latter shows some v&ry slight porosity, as already noticed.

Anteriorly the inter-trochanteric line is marked by a well developed
growth of sliort, thick, rather acuminate osteophytes, separated by
grooves running in the axis of the neck. A similar line of more slender
imbricated osteophytes runs parallel to the base of the great trochanter
and trends toward it. These two lines form the letter A. Immediately
within this letter A (especially on the left side) the trend of all the osteo-
phytes turns sharply downwards and so continues to the lower :^ of the
boue, where they ai-e perpendicular. They are not very marked in their
development. Just above the end of the shaft, however, they form an
overlapping she;' '^' to the bone. In the middle of the right femur an
aperture (1^^ X | inches) exists in tlie ensheating new growth, disclosing

L

'h

Popper. ]

"0

o

l"!)cc. 2,

to view the original but altered bone. Posteriorly the osteophyte grow tli
oxtendy from half an ineh below the leaser troehanter to within 3:V inches-
of the end of the shaft, and the same sheath-like appearance is very no-
ticeable at its two extremities. AVhere not covered with osteophytes, the
shaft is very finely porous and thickened. All the central tAA^o-thirds of the
shaft is one vast mass of large, irregular, porous osteophytes. Their di-
rection is not constant, but is in general downwards, and their shapes arc
very varied. The mass extends for about eight inches, along what was the
tolerably sharx> linca aspera, but is now about ;^ iu. wide and about ^ inch
thick. The posterior iutcr-trochanteric line and great trochanter are not
nflected, except a slight porosity iu the former. The lesser trochanter is
wanting, but for ^ in. around it there is no disease beyond some porosity
save one s(iuamous osteophyte on the right side.

On section (Fig. •")) in the axis of the head and great trochanter the out-
line of the old bone is not to be made out save internally, and then only
imperfectly. The old and new growths are almost everywhere indistin-
guishably welded together. The lamiuic of the new growth, too, arc
welded together save at a very few points. The old compact wall is still
solid, but it looks granular and does not present the ivory-like solidity of
normal comjiact tissue. The medullary canal is somewhat enlarged at
the expense of its walls. At the lower extremity tlie traho<uike of the can-
cellated substance are normal, but in the head and neck the arches for
mechanical support are much less distinctly marked than is usual.

(c) Patella. The right patella is missing. The anterior surface of the
left shows a few osteophytes trending downwards.

(d) Tibia. Both the upper epiphyses are preserved. The whole bone
is greatly diseased and thickened to about twice its usual diameter. The
tubercle is slightly thickened and presents a ragged edge above for
articulation with the epiphyses, but the greater part of the tubercle being
developed from the epiphyses the disease is n(^t very marked. The crest
is rounded in its wdiolc length and porous. The internal sub-cutaneouS:
surface presents marked s-y\^elling and porosity. There is but little oste-
ophyte growth, and it is generally in the lamin;i} except at the sartorius
insertion, where it is more developed. A number of deep grooves exist,
<^enerally longitudinal in their direction and most marked at the upper
third. The posterior and external surfaces are covered with a warty
growth of porous osteophytes which attain tUeir greatest development
at the interosseous border and especially at the obliMue line. The gen-
eral trend of all this growth is downwards. Grooves for the vessels are

J

frequent and tolerably deep.

On section (antero-posteiior) the outline of the old bone is distinct at
the extremities, but in the central two-thirds it is barely visible in front
and wholly lost behind, the sclerosis at this part having welded together
all the lamiuie of the new growth and the original bone. Even at the ex-
tremities the new lamime are not very marked. The rarefaction^ of the
original compact substance is of course therefore not marked. The me^
aultary canal if at all altered is narrowed by tlie encroaching sclerosis.

^

^
i

i [

s
t

5

f

r

\

1870.]

^1

[ro])i)cr^

/

(e) Fibula (Fig. 18). Its shaft aluuo is pixjscrvcd, and its axis is
.slightly bent imvaids. The Avhole bone is encased in a newly formed os-
seous gi-owth which is sometimes simply porous, and is covered with
sometimes an interrupted, sometimes a contimious, growth of warty
osteophytes, all more or less porous. Posteriorly and internally this-
growth is most developed, the trend being downwards. The lower svrb-
cntaneous surface is greatly thickened and finely porous, but has no os-
teophytes.

On section the bone is donbled in its diameter, the outline of the
original bono being only visible in about one-half of its extent, the scle-
rosis obscuring it at other points. The original compact tissue is rare-
fied by spongiosis, and the medullary canal is somewliat widened.

(f) Hand and Foot. They are considered together, as some of the
bones are indistinguishable, and moreover, in general the ^ame descrip-
tion applies to both.

(1.) Kight scaphuid of hand. INot diseased.

(2.) Left calcis. Porous and enlarged tliroughout. Porous osteophytes
are seen at the attachments of the tendinous sheaths internally, and one
large tiat one on the inferior surface. The epiphysis for the attachment
of the tendo achillis is preserved, but shows no disease.

(3.) Metacarpus, metatarsus and phalanges. Two of the phalanges
have their epiphyses attached but not united by ossification. The epi-
physes are not diseased. No other epiphyses are preserved. All the^e
bones suffer by far to the greatest extent in the centre, not at ah at the-
head (viewed externahy), and but little at the base, and the new growth
is five or six times as thick on the dorsum as on the opposite surface. Xo.
osteophytes exist save on one of the metatarsal bones and at the ridges
for the flexor sheaths of three of the phalanges.

On section (Fig. 21), compare also Fig. 22, the outlines of the old bones
are very readily seen, the apex of the conical sclerosis having, at points,
just touched the surface of the old bone. The original wall of pompact
tissue is wholly rarefied by spongiosis, and the cancelli of the new and old
bone are readily distinguished by the dilTerent directions of their axes.
The normal compact w^all of the ijhalanges being very thick relatively,
the chauf-es in it are the more marked. Sclerosis has inVaded from
half to two-thirds of the new growth. The head of the bone is also
markedly rarefied by spongiosis.

3IICR0SC0PIC EXA>IIXATION.

w

The specimens from which the following description and w^ood-cuts
were made, were prepared with his w^ell known skill by Dr. J. II. McQuil-
len. They consisted of a transverse section through the thickened wall of
a phalanx, embracing the thickness of the layers superimposed by the pe-
riosteum, but not of the entire original compact layer of the bone, and of
a transverse section through the right canine tooth.

\

Ii

■!

1

Pepper, j

32

[Dec. '>,

Tlie section of the phalanx (Fig. A) exhibited a quite compact osseous
structure — the ITavoisian canals being for the most part round, and
rather small, though in some places they were irregularly shaped or oval,
and larger. The intervening bone lamelhe wore of unusual thickness,

^-K^/l

Fig. a.

i

|L,

!i|fl

1 I

ill I

and presented in the majority of cases, bone corpuscles with canaliculi.
In some cases, hoAvever, no bone corpuscles were present, and the lamellae
appeared to be merely calcified by saturation with bone salts.

The bone corpuscles were small and often indistinct ; in some places they
were unusually round, but in others they presented the normal elongated
shape; their canaliculi wxre invariably very poorly developed, and often
could not be discovered.

With regard to the mode of arrangement oC the bone lamcllse, they
were always developed concentrically with (parallel to the walls of) the
Haversian canals, and in no instance were any lamell:^; found whose di-
rection was parallel to tlie external surface of the shaCt.

r

1670.]

33

[Pepper.

The section of the tootb (Fig. 13) showed tbe existence of luimerous ir-
regularly sliaped, branchino lacuiue in the dentine near the marginal
layer of enamel. These spaces wei-e of various sizes and intercepted the

^ iV " -

{

* hi

itefetiM

>^;a\^\^^;'N*^\-v

A

,^5

i)fiifiti;Hi1ii|^i:^\^i\Vili;:^lfj^'^''

^^;.- ■--^_.rv>

i

^"^10

J

i.

■course of a varying nmnher of dental tubuli. They indicated unquestion-
ably cither an arrest of the process of calcification of the dentine, or of
the resorption of calcareous matter already deposited, conditions which are
also present in the true bony tissue. Tbey are identical with the so-called
inter [/lobular sjxcces first described by KoUiker and carefully studied by
Dr. McQniUen of this city, wlio has published (Dental Cosmos, K. S. Vol.
Yin, No. o, pg. Uoj) several excellent illustrations of them.

PATHOLOGY OF THE DISEASE.

Having thus described the gross and minute features of these bones,
^ve wonld hazard tlic following remarks in regard to the nature and cause
of the pathological process : —

In the fu'st place it is to be observed that three separate i>roccsses, or
at least three distinct stages of the same process, are represented in dif-
ferent parts of the skeleton, or even, in some instances, in single bones.
These stages are :

First. Internal Osteoporosis of the original osseous tissue. 2d. Ex-
ternal Hyperostosis, due to successive attacks of Periostitis, both of
which processes are present in vai-ying proportion in almost all the bones,
^and :](]. Secondary Induration,.

^V, p. s. — VOL. XII — E

f -^ -IL - - _

iJB

■I .

t. ■

i;

l"i;!i

L '

^

' i

I

■ 1

I I

iti'li

r(;ppcr.]

34

[Dec. 2,

1. It is esi^ecially iu regard to the explanation of the internal osteopo-
rosis, ■which constitutes so marked a feature of these specimens, that wo-
regret the absence of any careful examination of the bones in their recent
condition. In their present state, it is only possible to describe the de-
gree to which this rarefaction of tJic osseous tissue has occurred, but it is
evident that such changes might be produced by very varied alterations
of the medulla and bone corpuscles. Thus, among the recognized causes
of osteoporosis, may be mentioned syphilis, scrofnla,. rheumatism ; J^nd,
ill addition, we must add that both osteomalacia and simj)le ostitis pro-
duce changes in the bones which, after the specimen has been boded, and
the organic matter entirely removed, are not to bo distingushed from the
effects of the iirst mentioned diseases. In each case, under the action of
the morbid irritant, whether pui'cly external and local, or internal and con-
stitutional, there is more or less rapid proliferation of the essential vital
elements of the osseous tissue, called bone corpuscles or cells. At the same
time, the bony laminae surrounding the Haversian canals, and the walls
of the lacuna;, are progressively deprived of their calcareous salts and
removed, while the enlarged spaces thua produced arc filled by the con-
stantly growing cellular elements. The manner in which this removal of
the calcareous salts is effected has been, and indeed remains, a subject of
much discussion. The Iirst idea which seems to have been entertained may
bo inferred from the name, eccentric atrophy, which was given to many
specimens of osteoporosis, under the belief that the bony lamellee were
thinned and pushed asunder by the centrifugal pi-essure of the growing
medulla. There is, however, no evidence wliatever in favor of such a
mechanical explanation, and this hypothesis has justly been almost uni-
versally abandoned.

By far the most i>lausible explanation whicJihas been advanced appears
to be that tlie removal of the calcareous salts, the first essential step in
the destruction of the bony lamellai, is due to the solvent action of some
acid elaborated by the bone cells during the inflammatory process. Ac-
cording to Weber, their removal is not due to the direct action of any
acid, but is owing to a gradual conversion of the insoluble iri-basic phos-
phate of lime into the more soluble bi-basic salt.

As this feature of rarefaction is, however, common to so many diseases
of the bones, it is evident that the most characteristic results of such dis-
eases arc to be rather found in the condition of the bone cells, and in the
characters of the morbid product which Las residtcd from their multipli-
cation. And it is to be trusted, that by ca,rcful chemical and microscopi-
cal study of these, such peculiarities will be discovered as will enable us
to distinguish with certainty in recent bones the various morbid changes.

Heretofore the majority of observers have limited themselves either to
a description of the dried bone, after maceration or boiling, or at most,
of the general characters of the medulla with which its cancclli are fdled.
And it results from this superficial mode of study, that there is as yet but

■>

^

I

r

<;

1870.]

35

[Pci^pcr

\

\

t

little exact knowledge of the really essential changes "which the organic,
active i^ortions of bones undergo in disease.

Yirchow, who was among the first to examine microscopically the con-
dition of the hone cells in ostitis and some other diseases attended with
rarefaction of tlie bone tissue, (Uber parencliymatose Entziindnng;
Yirchow's Archiv. J3d. IV. lift, 2: 18r)2, b. s. BOl to 311,) formerly
regarded the process as essentially a degenerative one, due to tlie fatty
degeneration of the bone corpuscles and the subsequent softening and
removal of the area depending on the-;; <\Hs. We have already, how-
ever, stated the view which appears most j^lausible in regard to the re-
moval of the calcareous salts, and so far from fatty degeneration of the
bone corpuscles being a cfiustant feature in the different forms of osteo-
porosis, it would api>ear from the careful researches of Ranvier f Archives
d' Anat. et Phys., ^N'orm . et Path., Ko. 1, 18G8, page 69), that this condition
of the cells is altogether characteristic of caries and limited to that morbid
process. On the other hand, there is every reason to presume that these
cells are influenced by various morbid "causes, (inflammation, syphilis,
rlicnnuxtism, gout, scrofula, t^c.) in the same way as the other tissues of
the body, and give rise to products more or less characteristic of the dis-
eased action j)rescnt.

The history of the present case would appear to indicate that the na-
ture of the disease was a rheumatic or scrofulous inflammation, but
beyond this mere supposition we are prevented from advancing by the
absence of any chemical and microscopical examination of the recent
bones.

We would here again call attention to the mai-ked peculiarity of the
porotic bones, fully described at pages 34 and 2.j, and figs. 4 and 17, al-
though we are unable to suggest any plausible explanation of the invaria-
bly parallel arrangement of the meshes of the porotic bone, and of the
equally uniform vertical arrangement of the meshes of the new-formed
sub-periostcal layers.

2. Another important appearance present in the bones here described,
and indeed one which is as marked and wide-spread as the osteoporosis,
is the extensive development of bono upon the exterior of the original
shafts. In our description of the skeleton, we have already noted the
peculiarities of these sub-periosteal growths, and it Avill be remembered
that they arc in every instance limited to the body or shaft of the bones,
and never extend on to the epiphyses, and that they usually present sev-
eral thin lamiuio of imperfectly compact bone, parallel to the shaft and
separated from it and from each otlier by more or less wide interspaces
usually occupied by coarse cancellated tissue.

It is undoubtedly from the examination of such specimens as this that
the mistaken idea arose that the lamelhc, of which the original compact
shaft was formed, had been pushed asunder by the great enlargement of
its cancelli. It will, however, be seen from our description that the ap-

:

Krrj , _

' ir J

:{|'lli|

Vi

Pepper.]

3G

[Doc. 2, .1870.

pearances contradict any such supposition, and clearly show that while
ill the cancellated and imperfectly compact tissue of the original shaft a
process of rarefaction (osteoporosis) has been advancing by atrophy of
the bony lamellaj, there has also been an active process of periostitis re-
sulting in the formation of thick layers of new bone on the exterior.

Another means of distinguishing the line of demarcation between the
original shafts and the new-formed layers, is the abrupt change in the
direction of the cancelli already referred to.

It is evident, also, that the periostitis has not been uniformly continuous,
but that for a variable time its intensity was such that the inilammatory
product was capable of but imperfect ossification, and remained as cancel-
lous tissue ; while at irregular intervals thin layers of imperfectly com-
pact tissue have been formed. The occurrence of this long standing, but
not uniform process of periostitis ossificans aj^pears to account, in every
instance, for the changes observed on the exterior of the original shafts.
In addition to this uniform hyperostosis, it will be observed from the de-
scription (sec pp. 33, 34) that the same process of pei'iostitis has given rise
to varied forms of porous osteophytes.

3. In some places, however, it is evident that a still further change has
occurred, consisting in the gradual conversion of the cancellous tissue
into compact bone. This process of consecutive or secondary induration
is most marked in the layers of bone formed by the periosteum ; though
it is present in the shafts of the tibiai, femora and some other bones. It
is manifestly impossible to determine accurately the portions which
have been rendered compact by this process, but the disposition of the
successive layers of new-formed bone is, in general, so much like that
above described, that we are inclined to regard all the areas of compact
bone of any consi:lerable thickness as due to this secondary change.

It would, indeed, appear but probable that as the high degree of inflam-
mation,^ under which the layer of cancellous tissue had been formed, sub-
sided, thoi-e should be a tendency to the formation of successive layers of
bone on the interior of the walls of the cancelli. It is especially in con-
nectitm with this point that the result of the microscopical examination
of the sub-periosteal layers is of so much interest. It will be observed
(see Fig. A) that in the newly-formed compact bony tissue, the lamellaj
arc arranged concentrically around the vascular canals ; a mode of ar-
rangement whiclx strongly points to the occurrence of the process of con-
secutive induratio)!, as we have above described.

The specimens are deposiLcd Jn the JTuscnm of the College of Physi-
cians.

J. EWTNG MEAKS, M. I).

AVM. W. KEEN, M. D.

IIAIilUSOX ALLEN, M. !>.

WM. PEPPER, M. D.

!'!l

Ti

Stated Meeting^ Afarch 3, 187]

Present, live members.

Djv. (jr. 13. Wool', President, in the Cliair.

c^

Donations for the Library "were received from the Dorpat
Observatory, St. Gall Society, E. Asylum for Lunatics at
Perth, Scotland, the London Eoyal Society, E._Geographical
Society, Society of Arts, and Thomas Irving, Esq., General
Sabine, Sir Charles Lyell, the Eoyal Observatory at Green-
wich, Prof. Mayer of Bethlehem, the American Pharmaceutical
Association, Franklin Institute, Directors of City Trusts, and
IT. S. Commission Bureau for the. Paris International Expo-
sition for 18G7.

The Cylinder presented by Dr. Lowber was laid on the
table, and Prof Cresson called the attention of the members
to it.

*

The death of Wm. J. Ilamiilton, P. E. S., member of the

Society, was announced by Mr. Chase.

Prof Coj^c offered for publication in the Proceedings three
memoirs, entitled :

" Supplement to the Extinct Batrachia and Eeptilia of N.
America; by E. D- Cope." (See Proc. p. 41.)

" On two extinct forms of Physostomi of the Keotropical
region ;, by E. D. Cope, A. M." (See Proc. p. 52.)

"On the occurrence of fossil Cobitidos in Idaho; by E. D.
Cope." (See Proc. p. 55.)

Also "Notes relating to tlie Physical Geography and
Geology of, and the distribution of Terrestrial Mollusca in
certain of the West Indian Islands; bv Thomas Bland.''

Prof. Cope exhibited specimens of teetb and portions of the
jaw of a new Mososauroid ; also slabs of coal slate, containing
fossils of a new species of batrachian, and a new reptiliai

I

genus

Ii;

■ 1

Chase- J

38

[Maroli o,

Mr. Chase ofTered some additional evidence of tlie conirast

between European and American rainfalls ; and commimicated
some American peculiarities in the relations of barometric
pressure of winds and storms. (See below.)

Pending nominations ISTos. 669, 670, and new nomdnation
671, were read.

E
■

Mr. Chase made a communication on the subject of pro-
viding suitable accommodations for the observations of the
Signal Service Bureau, whicli was referred to tlic Curators
and Hall Committee, w^ith power to act.

And the meetino- -was adjourned.

Euro%)ean and American liaiii-fcilU .
By Pliisy Eakle Chase.

{Bead before the American TlUloso%Jti ^ I Society, March 3, 1871. J

There is still a lingering skepticism on tlie part of some meteorologists,
re<T"ar(lirig the moon's inllucnce on tlic Avcatlicr. a skepticism which is
perhaps owing to the apparent want of agreement l>et>veGn observations
at dillcrcnt i)kxces. There is, however, no good reason for expecting snch
accnratc correspondence as is sometimes deemed essential. Dr. Emerson
(Proc. A. P. S., XI. 518) has commnnicated to the Society Lis en rly ob-
servation upon the reversal of the European barometric prognostics on
this side of the Atlantic. Mr. Blodget (Climatology, pp. 331-207J has
pointed out various climatologic contrasts, and Mi'. Scott, the Director
of the British IMeteorological Office, has noticed an opposition between
the solar (or temperature) rain-falls in Western Europe and Eastern
America, analogous to that which I have indicated in the lunar rain-falls.
The confirmation tlms afforded to the resultsof my previous investigations,
strengthens the presumption that, in our Atlantic States, signs of fair
Avoather mny be most confidently trusted during the ten days preceding,
signs of rain during the eight days following, fidl moon.

In order to make a comparison between stations of similar latitude, I
obtained from the " Obscrvatorio do Infante I). Luiz," a record of the
quarterly rains at Lisbon for sixteen years, which 1 have embodied, to-

^.-cy^

i

J

-1871.J

39

[CllUSC

V*

:getlier with the observations at Pennsylvania Hospital for the same period,
in the follewing tables. The measurements are given in millimetres.

I.— QxTAIiTERLY EaIN-FALL AT LiSBON.

YEAKS.

'wiNT v'.n.

sniiNa.

SUMMEll.

AUTUMN.

TOTAL.

1855

■280.3

272.7

15.4

302.5

930.9

1856

513.4

300.7

8.0

90.3

912.9

1857

207.8

152.2

07.9

324.4

812.3

1858

113.2

7.1

507.6

912.1

1859

128.0

201.8

71.6

306.9

708.3

1860

. 210.9

122.4

39.6

187.3

560.2

1861

501.5

154.3

14.6

311.4

981.8

1802

364.4

282.9

6.6

176.9

830.8

1863

181.8

190.0

64.8

101.0

544.7

1864

155.3

282.2

33.9

303.5

834.9

1865

371.6

150.2

24.4

487.2

1042.4

1806

214.7

14.6

82.3

676.9

1807

197.2

216.2

13.0

172.1

599.1

1808

162.9

70.9

38.0

279.4

557.2

1SG9

158.5

3.1

clo

550.9

1870

305.7

' 111.0

21.9

100.3

599.5

Mean

275.2

197.9

27.9

753.4

II. — QUAIITERTT KaiX-

•FALT, AT P

rilLADEUPIIIA.

YKARS.

AVINTF.r..

Ri'iirxc.

SUMMElt.

AUTUM]S".

TOTAi,.

1855

193.0

109.9

435.4

257.8

1056.1

1850

284. 5

211.8

241.3

187.5

935.1

1857

184 4

359.9

482.6

133.4

1100.3

1858

201,9

272.8

274.1

237.1

1038.9

1859

370.7

376.9

370.4

371.0

1501.6

1800

240.3

229.0

311.7

343.9

1124.5

1801

209.8

302.5

243.3

332.0

1207.6

1S02

292.0

254.5

203.1

343.9

1154.1

1803

280.7

442.0

297.4

153.4

1173.5

1804

174.8

448.3

204.2

327.9

1155.3

1805

370.1

374.7

291.9

380.3

1416.9

1800

390.4

247.9

194.6

370.9

1203.8

1807

230.1

370.0

742.5

■ 228.1

1571.3

1808

401.3

208.0

404.0

1299.2

1869

318.5

290.2

247.7

337.8

1200.2

1870

297.7

404-9

303.8

105.8

1302.2

Mean

374.0

320.5

o~o.O

287.2

1211.9

It appears, therefore, that Ihe lioaviest rain-falls at Lisbon and the
lightest at Philadelpliia, arc usually in the Autumn and Winter semester
the heaviest at Philadelphia and the lightest at Lisbon, in the Spring and
'Summer. In ten years out of the sixteen, when the rain-fall of the entire
■year was above the average at one station, it was below the average at
t he other.

J

■ll"

I 3

k

1. 1
I'll

!l!

4

■^i!l|

Miwoii;;, ]87i.]

40

[Chase

^

imerican Weather Notes.

By Pliky Eaiile Chase.

The signal service observations of our "War Department have already
shown tiic value both of Buys BaUot's law and of Capt. Toynbee's modi-
fication in predicting changes of wind, especially if due regard is paid to
the barometric variations of the two previous days. They have also
suggested the following general deductions, some of which may perhap-s^
prove to be triic only of the winter, while otliers seem to be explicable by
natural eircumstanees of position and i>hysical configuration, which must
he operative at all seasons.

■

1. Winds varying like the land and sea breezes, are often traceable^
especially in the lull which follows the passage of storms, to diflerences of
lemj^erature in the neigliborhood of the great lakes, and of nionntaiu
peaks find ridges.

2. The wind, especially in the Southern States, often blows directly in
the line of the greatest barometric grcidient. But even in such cnses,,
after a few hours continuancCj it tends towards the azimuth indicated by
Buys Ballot's law.

:J. Tlie isoharic lijies are, therefore, often of less relative importance
than the gradients in forming forecasts.

4. Long ridges of high barometer, as observed by Espy and otljers,.
with adjacent troughs of low barometer, often traverse the continent,
sometimes with slight deliection, sometimes having a semi-circular,,
circular, or elliptical curvature with a diameter of three thout^and miles
or more. Such ridges usually liave a steeper declivity and stronger winds

. on their northerly and easterly 1;han on their southerly and Avesteily sides.

5. Currents with an anti-cyclonic tendency, controlU d by nrieas of high
barometer, are notably common. Keversals of wind, as from N. E. to S. AV.,,
are, therefore, frequent alter the passage of an anticyelonie ridge or cen-
tre, as well as after the passage of a cyclone.

0. Our recent stoims have been anticyelonie, and there seems some
reason for supposing tliat anticyclones arc the usual *' weather-breeders,'^
even of su(di of our land storms as become more or less cyclonic after they
are fnlly developed.

7. The precipitation of vapor of course gives rise to local cyclones,
which, however, may be easily and speedily overborne by the grand anti-
cyclonic whirls of a lialf million miles or more in area.

8. These and other peculiarities, point to a probable origin of storms
in the blending of polar and equatorial currents, near the latitudes at
which the general tendeiicy of the winds changes its direction.

9. Mr. Scott has observed that when polar (E.) currents are blowing at
the North, and equatorial ("VV.) currents at the South, a serious baro-
metrical disturbance, frequently resulting in a gale, generally soon fol-
lows ; but when the polar current is at tlie South and the equatorial at
the North there appears to be no law of sequence. The latter condition,
with us, seems often indicative of apx')roaching fair weather, especially if
northerly or easterly are separated from southerly or westerly winds by a
ridge of high barometer.

10. If the progress of a northerly or easterly current towards the equa-
tor is impeded by an intervening southerly or westerly current, the dis-
turbance not only speedily follows, as indicated by Mr. Scott, but it is
also, commonly, like most showers, 8. E. stoi ms, and otlier marked cyclonic
commotions, of briefer duration than those which are })rimarily anti-
cyclonic.

I

i
3

S^

■-T

J-. L-, J

'^A

Alufch 3,1871.]

41

[Cope..

SurrLEMKNT to the '■^ Synopm of the Extinct BatracMa and lU'piilia of

J^orih America.'*^

By E. D. Cope.

(Read before the American rhilosopMcal Society, March 3, 1871.) .

BATPvACIIIA.

Sauropleuka kemkx, Co])e.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Pliila. 18G8, p. 217. 0. amphiunimu^, Cope.,
Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 18G9, 17 in pai-ts.

A iino specimen of this species recently sent me by Prol". Kewberry,.
from Linton, Ohio, incUules tlie vertebral column from the hind limbs to
tlto end of tlie caudal series. One of the former is preserved and exhibits
slender digits and other characters like tliose already described in the S.-
pticiiiiata. Having ascertained that the OeMocepnalm ampMumimiR pos-
sesses no anterior limbs, I regard my reference of these species to that
genus as premature, and will allow them to remain in Sauropleuray.
where I originally placed them.

OESTOCErirAi.us AMriiiuMi:NUS, Cope.

Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 18G9, p. 17; 1. c. p. ii.

The bones formerly regarded by me as referable to a rud i mental fore-
lunb in this genus, appear to be rather brancliiliyals, and Indicate the ex--
istencc of external branchiee.

COLOSTEUS SCUTET.LATTTS, Newb.

pj/gopierus sctiCeUatus, l^Qwhervy, Proceed. Ac. Nat. Sci., Phil. 185G..
Colostcufi crassiscutaius, Trans. Amer. Pliil. Soc. 18G0, 2o.

The original description of this species by Prof. Newberry was over-
looked, in preparing my account of it above quoted.

MOSASAURID/E.

LionoN sectoritjS, Cope, sp. nov.

Established on a large part of the under and upper jaw, and other parts .
of the ci-anium with a vertebra, from the green sand of the upper bed of

the Cretaceous of New Jersey.

The character which at once distinguishes this species from other
Liodoris, :uul especially from all the species o^ Mosamiiriis^ is the very
' compressed form of the crowns of the teeth, wdiicli approach nearer in
this respect to those o^ Diplotomodon, than any others that I have seen..
The vertebra, a lumbar, has also subround articular faces, thus removing ,
the species from close relationship to those with depressed vertebrcHS, of
some of wliicli the teeth are unknown.

In the presenc specimen crowns and pedestals of thirteen teeth are pre-
served. Those of the mandible are most numerous, and display the suc-
cessional modification of form from before backwards visible in other
species of the family. The anterior teeth are less compressed, and have

+

A. r. S. — VOL XII— F

MM / \b

^■^\-t- -j-—r x.1.

■

I

111!'

i

;!■!■

I ^ I

iiif I
i; ill

\hi\l

,.

^Cope.] 42 [MaroliS,

but one, an anterior, cutting edge, the posterior face being regularly
convex. Tlie inner face is much more convex than the outer, and the
flatness of the latter is marked at the apex of the tooth by a shoit ridge
which bounds it posteriorly. This is a trace of the bounding angle which
extends to the basis of the crown in Mosasatirus. The anterior cutting
edge is in profile convex ; the posterior outline concave to near the tip.
The cutting edge is acute, and beautifully ribbed on each side, but not
properly denticulate. The surface of tlic tooth is not facetted, but the
outer face exhibits the peculiarity of a longitudinal concavity, or shallow
groove extending from tlie base to the middle of the crown. The enamel
is polished, but under the microscope minutely and extensively striate-
ridged. This description is taken from the second or third from the
anterior end of the maxillary bone. The third from the distal end of the
dentary is very similar.

The crowns become rapidly more comp]*essed as we pass backwards.
From a broad oval section of two crown bases, we reach a flattened oval
crown, with the cutting edge sharp behind as well as before, and minutely
ribbed. The crown, is not facetted, and is more convex interiorly than
exteriorly. The exterior convexity is chiefly anterior ; the posterior face
is slightly concave from the op(m groove already described as present in
the anterior teeth. In two posterior crowns, one still more elongate in
section, the external concavity becomes flatter and includes a great
part of the outer face. A tooth still more posterior presents the peculiarity
of the species in the strongest light. The crown is still more compressed,
directed backwards, and only ,25 higher than wide antero-posteriorly at
the base. The latter is a little over twice the transverse diameter just
behind the middle. The surface presents the characters described in
others. The outer concave surface is wide and shallow, and contributes
to the attenuation of the posterior half of the tooth rather than the an-
terior, which is consequently thicker. The cutting edges are sharp, the
anterior convex and retreating backwards to the rather obtuse apex ; the
posterior convex above, concave below.

The exposed parts of the dental pedestals are frustra of cones, neither
swollen nor concave.

MeasibvemenU. M.

Third superior maxillary length crown O.Oo^

'* heiglit crown and pedestal 04B

'^ longitudinal diameter base crown 02

** transverse 013

Sixth dentary, luugitudinal 034

'* " transverse 014

, Eleventh dentary height crown 084

'' height crown and pedestal i 0505

" longitudinal diameter basis crown 026

" transverse 014

The articxtlar bone is perhaps .GG the size of that of MosaHaarus dekayi

\

187 1.]

43

[Copo

f

and prcKcnts less powerful development oC the interior ridge for the
pterygoid nniscle. The cotylus descends abruptly behind it. The coro-
noid bone exhibits tlie usual anterior fissure. The rolled front margiu of
the ascending portion is thickened. The superior surface of the anterior
part oiW\^ fi'onixil horn, is lumpy and with some shallow pits ; the outer
face of the articular is smooth. The mrUhra preserved is a posterior
lumbar, and is injured; the anterior articular face is nearly round. Its
vertical diameter is I\1.058. Length of centrum M.OoS.

The forms of the teeth distinguish the Liodon sectorius from the species
of Momsaurm, and that of the vertebra, from such species ^^ Liodon
perlaiiis, Cope, and X. dyf^pelor, Cope. There remain to compare with it,
X, proHger, Cope ; L. mMcUlUh Dehay ; L. laems, Owen ; L. congrop^,
Cope ; L. ictericus, Cope ; and L. mu-dr/ei, Cope. In size it will only
compare with the first two species, beuig from twice to four times as
large as any of the remaining four. The fiLittencd teeth distinguish it at
once from L. ictericus, and the abrupt rising superior margin of the
articular bone, from the X. mudgei, where the upper and lower margins
are for some distance parallel. The less compressed vertebral centrum
distinguishes it from L. laevis. From the two large species, dental
characters separate it. Thus in Lprorirjer the teeth are less compressed,
and arc facetted, especially the anterior ones, with concave grooves sep-
arated by obtuse ribs. In M. miicMllii the teeth present more similarity,
but are abundantly distinct. They are much less compressed, even where
the posterior cutting edge is strongly developed, the external face is con-
vex to the apex and without concave or fiat facet ; it is narrower at the
base as compared with the height, and has D,n incurvature not seen in this
Liodon. The enamel is smooth, and not striate under the glass.

This and the L. mitcMUi are the largest Liodons of the Eastern cre-
taceous. I have recently obtained three anterior dorsal vcrtebrge and a
tooth of the latter, from the lower bed of cretaceous green sar.d near
Freehold, N. J. The vertebr;e rival in size those o^ Mosasauru^ delcayi,
but are of a more elou^.ac form. The articular extremities are cordiform
and nearly round, the posterior with tlie smooth neck band just in front
of its margin. In front of this, the surface is sharply striate, especially
on the inferior aspect ; the same appears on the bases of the diapophysis.*
The tooth is like one of those described by Leidy. (Cret. Kept. PL XI.)
' The Liodon seclorius was obtained by Judson C. Gaskill, from the marl
pits of the Pemberton Marl Co., at Pdrmingham, ^S". J., and liberally
l)laced at my disposal by liini.

ADOCID.^..
The species of this family display considerable differences in the nature
of the sutures of the bones of the plastron. In the thickest species the
sutures are fine and the processes very small. This is especially the case
•with Adocus pectoralis. In A. heaius vhich is thinner, the sutures are
coarser, but without gomphosis ; that between the byo- and hyposternal
elements looking as though a sliglit mobility existed in life, as I have

■;.^iv^

.'.I

;:|l!!i!

I

w

a

■M

11,11'!;

I

L

tJope,]

44

[March ;j,.

S"

obsci-vcvlin a fornier article. In A. syiiiheiicus the sutures are a little
(ioarser, and in A. agilis a further increase is seen, but with but little
gomphosis. In A. pravus, according- to Lcidy, there is a little gomphosis^
but how much is not ascertainable from his hgure and description. In-
IIomorophuH inmetvs, a stouter turtle, the gomi>liosis is very strong,
especially in the longitudinal sutures, where the teeth are long and stout.
In Zygoram,ma this coarseness of gomphosis reaches a maximum, bein
strong in all tlio sutures of the two species, except the anterior mcso
sternal of

ZYdOJtAMMA MICKOGLYI'HA, Cope, &p. UOV.

This large species is represented by the greater part of plastron and '
half of carapace, with four marginal bones, of an individual from the
New Jersey cretaceous, of two and a hidf feet in length. Its discoveiy is
interesting as enabling me to refer this genus to tha Adocidm without
doubt, a point wdiich the si^cimcns of the origimd species, Z. striatiila^
Cope, left uncertain. ■^- The episternal bone displays beautifully the wide
intergular scutum separating the lateral reduced gulars. The postabdom-
inal bone displays the swellings corresponding to the pubis and ischium.
The pectoral dermal scuta advance medially on the posterior part of the
mesosternal bone. These characters are those of Adocns, On the otlier
hand there is not satisfactory indication of the intcrmarginal scuta, though
they may exist, and the free marginal bones anterior to the bridge display
the double articulation, by suture and gomphosis characteristic of Zygo^
ramm,a. It might be hero observed that it is possihle that this structure
will be found tu exist in .species at present referred to Adocus, A. agilis-,.
for example, where the marginal bones are unknown.

This species is one of those in which the mesosternal is ]'eceived in tiie
very open emargination of the hyosternals, a character indicating the
breadth ot the former, and seen in A. agilis and A. Hynihdlcus, The
bones are relatively thin, the marginals light and gently i-ecurved. The
anterior lobe of the plastron is truncate, the straight anterior margin
grooved lengthwise. The posterior lobe is regularly contracted', and
rounded, and with thin edge. The xiphisternal and hyosternal of the
right side have each an oblique sutural union with the hyj)osternal of the
*lfeft. The mesosternal is broader than long, the posterior margin broadly
truncate, tlie latcro-posterior curved sigmoidally, the anterior regularly
conv&x. The episternal is but moderately thickened- The parts of the'

hypostcrnals on the bridge arc nearly in the plane of the rest of the plastron.
The marginal bones near those of the bridge have a thickened shoulder
above within, into which the slender costal processes are received : tiiey
thin out rapidly and are gently everted distally. JMore distal marginals
are lighter and more everted. ♦

The bones of the carapace include three vertebrals aiid numerous
costals. The latter display very weak capitular processes, but in none are
tliey entirely absent. Neither they nor the vertebrals are thickened. The

* Proceed. Anicr. Pliilos. Soc. 1S70, W:).

1871.]

45

[Cope.

A^ertcbrals are short cotHn-sbaped, concave or emarginate in front; a stout
laminar neural spine supports the vertebra belou'.

The sculpture of all the bones is a delicate impressed punctatiou, the
impressions forming- lines or delicate grooves in some places. Tlicso run
obliquely across some of the costals and marginals, and sublougitudinally
on the posterior lobe of the plastron. Tlie corneous scuta have left dis-
tinct impressions. The marginals extended on to tlie costal bones at the
place of the fiee marginal bones. The vertebrals %verc a little longer than
wide, with bracket shaped Literal sutures, and openly emarginate below.
The intcrgular plate was pentagonal, with straight sides, and broader
than long. The gulars are shoi-fc and not prolonged very far on the
outer margin of the plastron. The pectorals are narrowed laterally, and
present a convex median outline on the mesosternum. The abdomino-
femoral suture crosses a little behind the middle of the hypostcrnal bone.
The median longitudinal suture winds from side to side on the posterior
lobe in the most erratic fashion, abnormally no doubt, and the suture for
;the anals is anterioi', convex in front, sigmoid at the sides.

Measurements. M.

Lengtli of plastron (restored) 0.457

*' from front to postabdominal suture 34

*' " to (right) hyposterna] 105

" " to hyostcrnal .,■ 101

'' ■ " to mesosternal 038

Width at mesosternal 104

'' of " 095

" at i)ostabdominal suture 23

Thickness of mesosternal behind . .OllG

" of hypostcrnal medially 0158

"Width of average costal at vert, scute suture 055

Thickness of .same. Oil

Total length adjacent vertebral 006

Greatest width 0;]()

Width do. at end 022

Length of Hrst free marginal from bridge 0G55

Width of do 10

Thickness proximally 017")^

*' of a free marginal jn'oximally 01

Width '' *' 075

Length " " 0548

The type specimen ot this species is about twice the size of that of Z.
striaUUa. It also dilfers in some respects which might be attributed to
age, as the greater recurvature of the marginal bones and the greater ex-
tent or prolongation of the thickening on the inside of the mai'ginals next
the bridge. TA\t there are others which appear to be specific. Thus
there is very little evidence of cross-union of sternal elements in the Z.
-striatula, and the sculpture is twice as coarse and so much more marked.

-_Jl-^-^t

I I

i!

Coi)c.]

4ti

)

Maroli:!,

Tlic pegs of the costal goiiipliosis are ab.solutely twice as large, and
relatively still larger. T therefore believe this specimen to represent
another species. Besides the sutural cliaractcrs, those of the intergular
scuta separate this species from Adocus heakts. In the latter that scute is
urceolate, and the gulars sickle-shaped, being produced backwards on the
margins of the epistenial or clavicular bones. In A. fujnthcMcus the
intergular is narrower, and convex behind, the mesosternum is angulate
posteriorly, and the plastron mucli thicker. In A. agilis the plastron is
nearly similar in thickness, but the mesosterinim is angulate behind, and
is narrower, and the sculjiture very much coarser.

The Z. 'niicToglyplta was found by my friend, Judson Gaskill, in the
marl excavations under his direction, at T)ii-mingham, N. J.

AGOMPIIUS, Cope.

This name is proposed for a genus of TeMndinata heretofore not recog-
nized. It appears to belong to tlio EmydiiUe so far us known, but to
difCer from them in lacking the articidation of costal and marginal bones
by gompliosis, characteristic of the existing genera of the family. It
does not appear to diller in any otlier point so far as known. The type
species is Agom/phus turgidti^^ Cope {Em.ys Trans. Amer. Phila,, 1870,
127) ; others tVom the cretaceous of New .Jersey are A, firmus, Leidy (1. c.
12G) and A. pe(rom,% Cope, (1. c. 13fi).

(?) rROPLKUJUD/E, Cope.

Silllm. Avier. Journ.. Sci. Ari.% 1870, (/">) 137-8.
Catai'leuka I'oiSDEKOSA, Cope, spec. nov.

This turtle is represented by two posterior marginal bones, six costals,
a hypostcrnal, scapula and procoracoid, and femur and humerus, all more
or less fractured.

The marginals arc the caudal, and adjoining one of the right side.
They both present a suture for the pygal vertebral, and the lateral pre-
sents also a pit for articulation by gompliosis with the last costal bone.
They are of heavier form than those of any other species of the group.
The iiyposternal has had no sutural union with the hyosternal unless ex-
teriorly ; this, if existing, has been sliglit. Tlie shaft of the hnmcrus is
contracted and nearly cylindrical ; the great trochanter of the femur is
little elevated, and not continuous in the plane of the head, but sepai-ated
from it by a depression.

The above characters express the generic relationships of this type.
The gomphosis with the last lateral marginal, as well as the lack of union
of the lateral elements of the sternum separates it fi'om Osteopygis ; their
union is more extensive than in Propleura sopita. This would not prevent
the generic unity of the two, were it not for the additional characters of
a slender shafted humerus, and probably broad short mandible with Ion
symphysis. In P. sopita the rami are slender, and the sympysis short. The
characters are much like those of Cataplcura repanda, and 1 arrange it
witli that species until better information compels a chanoe.

E=rr^-'.

1871.] "^^ - f^^op*-'-

The caudal inargiiial is strongly concave below, convex above, the
■margin little recurved. The anterior outline is convex i-neclially, with
strai<^ht continuations at right angles to each lateral suture. A portion
of the edge is broken off. Lateral marginal strongly and openly cniar-
ginate, surface not convex as in the median. Doth are massive as in
Agomphus firmus and allies. The union with the pygal ceases beliind

the costal pit.

The costah are thick and considerably curved transversely to the verte-
bral axis, the rib heads arc unusually large and prominent and sub-
cylindric in section. The rib ridge is more elevated and rounded in
section than in any other species.

The liyposternal is from the left side. It exhibits the free articulation
for the xiijhisternals ; the posterior margin is thinned out, while the
anterior is more abruptly rounded, and without trace of hyostcrnal
suture. The external face is distally rayed with narrow ridges. The
common peduncle of the scapula and procoracoid is short and wide, the
sutural face for the coracoid, snbtriangular.

The bicipital ridge of the liumcruH is as usual at right angles to the
head, and is thin and Hat, The i^lanc of the inner crest makes an open
anMc with the outer ; its base is less distant from the shaft than that of
the outer. The great trochanter diverges somewhat from the plane of
the axis of the head of the /(?ww?-. The latter overhangs the shaft be-
hind ; the latter is curved, and beyond the middle subquadrate. In this
as in the humerus, one of the two crests is continued as a ridge along the
shaft.

Measurements. ^ 2L

Length caudal n\arginal O.OG

AVidth. . . : ' - - -08

Thickness 0*^1'?

"Width second ? costal bone ^^^

Thickness do. at centre ^1'^

AVidth liyposternal at middle 064

Thickness do. near anterior margin 012

Length free portion of a rib. 018

Diameter (long) head humerus 037

*' ' shaft '* 01f>

*' '* head femur. 033

'' shaft " 010

Width mandible at symphysis at right angles to margin . . .034
Thickness mandible at symphysis posteriorly Oil

Accompanying the above remains were those of a small chelydrine
turtle, and of a TapJtrosphys, and a portion of the mandible of a species
allied to Lytoloma augusta and other species. Its size relates well to the
other bones of the Catapleura pondcrosa^ and I suspect that it belongs to
that species. It has the expanded form with slightly recurved alveolar
margin, of this group; the masseter fossa is strongly marked ; the dental

1

n.-c DLm^.^-^T^-^-^t^o>-l 1 t^rK-tjT'-y^^WB^-E.'^ ^Ii^'ir-T

, p

I I

1 1

: 1

Cope.]

48

[Marcli n,

foramen opens almost superiorly; the posterior margin of tlio jaw is
deeply grooved.

The C. ponderosa differs from C. repanda in its rounded instead of
flattened rib-ridges on the inferior surface of the costal bone, and in the
different proportions of the crests of the femur, TIic lesser trochanter in
the latter is more robust, and less narrowed and prolonged as a rid(;e on
the shaft. The proximal Jialf of the shaft is straight; in O. ponderom
curved.

Tliis species was discovered by John G. Miers, a gentleman who has
already enriched palioontology with many interesting forms. From the
upper bed of Cretaceous green sand at Ilornerstovvn, Kew Jersey.

In the nomenclature of the elements of the plastron of the Testudinata,
1 M'ill in future adopt in part tliat proposed by Parke]- (on the shoulder
girdle lioy. Society, 1869), who has shown after Rathkc that the posterior
pieces do not belong to the sternum. The bones from front backwards
should then Ije named, claucle ("episternal "), --mesosternal, 7i7/osternaJ,
liypofffcrncd, and iwMahdominal ("xiphisternal ").

CKOCODTLIA.
BoTTOsAuitus MACKOiiiiYNCiixjK, llarlun.

G. harlani, Meyer. IJoUosaiirus harlaniy Agass., Leidy, Cope.

The present state of knowledge of this rare species and genus involve
some confusion, and I propose here to set it to rights in a brief manner.
This is rendered easy by tlio discovery of the almost complete skeleton of
a nearly grown individual, in the upper bed of cretaceous green sand.

Following my predccessor.s, I regarded the Crocndihis basUruncahis of
Owen as this species, hi the synopsis Batr. Bcpt. K. Am., 18G9, p. G-"),
but with exi^rcssion of considerable doubt. At page 2'SX of the same
work, I distinguished the species of Owen as a true Ifolopft. As I had sup-
posed the cervical vertebras to present the characters of llolops^ the
assignation of the specimens on which this opinion was founded to a
species of that genus, left an entire uncertainty as to their character in
BoUosaurus. The discovery of a scries of vertebra) as above mentioned,
settles that their structure is not that of the other cretaceous genera, but
that of tlie Tertiary and recent forms, t. e.^ that the hypapophysis of the
eervicals are produced and undivided to the axis. Deducting the emnie-
ously supposed character, there remains one curious feature to distinguish
this form from the recent Alligator. The fangs of the teeth posterior to
the eleventh are not enclosed by the dcntary bone, but are exposed to the
inner face of the splenial. ITow far the latter protects them the nature
of the specimen does not allow me to decide.

It remains to correct the specific relations of this crocodile. At page
380 of the above work, I described a new species of Bottosrmru-'^, under
the name of/?, hiberculatus, establishing it on remains of ci-aninm of one
individual and those of the posterior parts of a skeleton of another. The
antei'ior part, with jaws of the latter having fortunately been recovered

■i' ■-■-■'^r:

1871.]

49

[Cope.

^

■|:*^

as above montioncd, and placed in my hands, I find that the animal bc-
iongs to the original B. nuicrorltynchus, and that tlic fnvst jaw and teeUi
represent an individual of another species, -which will bear tlie name of
B. ticherciilatu.s. It dilfers from the first named in tlic acute or conic form
of the crowns of some of the teeth, and probably in the much i^maller
size.

In addition to the generic peciiliarities alreadj^ mentioned, this species
exhibits a disparity between the lengths of the centra of the lumbar and
cervical vertebrjc, Avhich is unusual ; compare the measurements below
witli those given for the remainder of the same animal as above cited.

The hypapophysis of the dorsal vertobrie are lon^s with parallel sides,
and oval in section. In that one where the capitular articular face is
near the suture of the neural arch, the articular cup is entirely round,
and its margin flared out regularly to the capitular surface. The neura-
pophyses are narrow, and the anterior zygapophyses directed very obliquely
downwards.

The cervieals are not only shortened, but diminish very mucli in
diameter anteriorly, and the cup continues round. The hypapopliysis is
very stout on the anterior, more compressed on tite posterior vertebne.
The ncurapophysial arlicular faces have the usual rugose anterior and
radiate crested posterior areas, but arc .short nnd wide, and the anterior
area lias an obli(_^ue concavity extending across it outwards and auterioi-ly.

The ])ObterJor area is, however, the more deeply grooved, especially on
the Uimbar vcrtebrfi;.

r

The rami of the mandible ^i\i preserved nearly entire. The large ex-
ternal foramen between tlie dentary, angular, and articular bones, exists
as also the smaller one on tlie inner face of the ramus. 7'Iie rami are
hoUow^ and thin walled, though of very stout form. The anterior teeth
extend along the outer margin of the dentary and then cross to the inner
side, the teeth from the twelfth to the eighteenth or last being separated,
the first by rudimental septa the latter by mere low^ ridges. Six of these
teeth are exposed without osseous Avall on tlic inner face, and that for the
anterior tooth is probably incomplete. The whole length of the ramus is
about twenty-eight and a half inches. It is elevatcLl at the position of the
tooth usually called the juferior canine ; this may be made to appear like an
external expansion by rotating the ramus outwards (seeLeidy Cretaceous
Kept. U. S., Tab. IV. fig. 20). There is another elevation at the seventh
tooth behind this point, and a concave curve to the elevation of the
articular bone. The angle of the jaw is prominent. The cutting edge
is rather obtuse and delicately ridged transversely ; the rest of the crown
is rngose-striate.

McnMtrements^ 3f.

Length ramus mandible 0.780

. Length series of last seven teeth . 160

Deptii ramus at twelfth tooth (from front) 084

** at external foramen 145

A. r. 8.— VOL. XII— G

''■.

I -_ *^"

■r.t

till

i

Cope.] ^0 [March 3,

MeamremenU. M.

Length centrum anterior lumhar . - .055

Diameter cui> do ■ 043

" . ncurapophysis do 013

dorsal 037

" cup of ccutrum '' 035

Length base hypapopliysis 03

Length centrum median cervical 051

Width cup " " - 037

Depth '' " '* .035

" " anterior "■ 029

Width " " *' , 033

" between post. marg. parapopliyses 045

Depth of centrum to lower edge 04

Bottosaurus inacrorhyncJms, Ilarl., was then a crocodilian with a body
of the prox^ortions of our alligator, but with larger legs, and relatively con-
siderably larger head. The cranial bones, however, arc much leas massive,
as though to reduce tlie w eight which would prove inconvenient to a body
of no larger size. The bones of the mandible are thin and enclose large
pneumatic cavities ; the teeth arc hollow and with thin walls.

I am indebted to Judson C. Gaskill for the opportunity of examining
this interesting fossil.

DIKOSAL'RIA.

nAi:)KOSAi:RUs CAVATUS, Copc, sp. nov.

This species is iiidieated by remains derived from the upper green sand
bed of the upper Cretaceous of Xew^ Jersey. They belong to an individ-
ual of the ^no-antic proportions characteristic of the four known si)ecics
of the fcnus. It is smaller than //. iri2)os or //. occldentalis, and in a less
decree smaller than the //. foulkci. The remains consist of four caudal
vertebra; from the median part of the series, three of them exhibiting
rudiments of the diapophyses. In two of them the neural arch remains,
one Avith the spine, and the articular prominences for the chevron bones
are nearly complete.

The first character which is observed in these vertebne is their opistho
coelian articulation. The posterior concave face is marked by a more or^
less prominent elevated band descending from the end of the lloor of the
neural canal, and which is sometimes grooved medially. The convex ex-
tremity is swollen in the middle, most especially so at three points, and a .
^■roove or depressed baud which has less than one fourth the width of the
centrum, extends round the margin outside of it. The general form of
the extremities is rounded hexagonal, the aiitcrior a little depressed, the
posterior a little compressed. The sides of the centra arc quite concatx.
The chevron articular projections are quite prominent, terminating ante-

ii

V -*■

t

riovly ill a loxv ridgo whicli extends to near the arlteriorfacc. At the latter
position chevron articuar faces are either wanting or very little marked.
Tiie centra exhibit no hater al angnhitiou; the third from the anterior has
■a trace in a longitudinal fulness above tlie middle of the side ; the last, the
same, belowthe middle of the side. The margins of the extremities arc well
flared. Tlie neural canal is a little compressed and deeply excavated in
the centrum. The surface of the centrum is only rugose at the base of the
diapophysis. The general form vicAved laterally is subquadrate, tlie
:^nterior vertebra a little deeper than long, the posterior a little longer
than deep.

■ Measurementif, M.

Length centrum of anterior ' OOq

Depth posterior face q^^^

wi-ith " v.".".v:;::;;::;:;;::;;:: :o84

" of both chevron processes. ... , 05

*' of neural canal qo^

Deptii neural canal qoo

Lengtli neurapophysis 04

Third vertebra, depth posteriorly " t)71

depth posteriorly with chevron process .078

Fourth vertebra, width centrum behind 075

<^epth - 06G

" with chevron process 074

. Width neural canrd 02

spine 02;'>

*' neurapophysis. . 034

The measurements of depth of centrum are made from the fioor of the
neural canal, not from the upper margin of the superior lateral projections
of the articular faces.

As in ILfoiukci, the neural spines have a small antcro-posterior diam-
eter, and the zygopophyses are httle developed. The anterior are sub-
acuminate and more or less joined together. As the neural spine is very
oblique, tlie posterior zygapophyses are above a point behind tlie articular
extremity of the centrum.

This species differs at once from the //. tripos, IL foulkei -.lud JI. minor
m the opistliocoelian vertebra>, resembling iu this respect the //. occU
dentalis (Thcspesius, Leidy). The latter differs from JL cavatus in the
development of the chevron articulation equally on both adjacent centra,
^ instead of on the posterior extremity only. In IT, foulI:ei and 11. iripas
this double junction of chevrons extends to the extremity of tlio caudal
series, adding another important ground of difference between them and
the IL cavattis,^ The single caudal vertebra of //. occuUntalis known, is
lihctluitof the former species in this respect, but there is no certainty
. that the structure continues the same throughout the caudal series, and
that the distal vertebriB may not be like those of//, cavatus in this re-'

!f

1 M

^ I
I ;

I ,1

Cope.]

52

[Marcli 3,

spect. Itj howevorj further dilfovs in the relatively more compressed or
oval centrum, and much greater size. From //. minor the present reptile
diflbrs in the opisthocoelian vertebrte, the known caudals of the former
liaving piano articular surfaces, and in tlie much larger size. It is not
possible to compare similar parts of this species and the Or iiitJio tarsus
immanis, Cope, but the larger size and much lower stratigraphic horizon
of the latter renders their identity very doubtfid.

Should the genus TJic^pcuiiH of Leidy turn out to be well eatablished,
the present species Avill enter it. I am not, liowover, entirely satisfied that
the diilerence in the form of the articular faces of the caudal vertebra) is
such as indicates generic dilfcrence. It was o^\ this ground that I refcri'ed
this form to Iladrosaurus (in Synopsis Extinct Batr. Ttcpt. N. Amcr.,
p. 98), and not from misapprehension of Leidy's definition of it, as the
latter supposes (Proceed. Aca. IS"at. Sci., 1870, p. 07).

The rather slight material above described is fortunately so character-
istic as to enable us to establish satisfactorily the existence of another
monster of tixe remarkable gioup of the IDinosauria ; beings, whose ap-
pearance and structure have rivalled the strangest creations of the
imagination, and shown a^ain Avhat every otlier page of the book of
nature teaches, that reality is stranger than fiction.

On Two extinct forms of Physostonii of the JSfeotropical Region.

By K. D. Cope, A. M.
[Read before ilie American Fhllosoyldcal Society, Marcli 3, 1871.)

Fam. ELOFID^..

Prymnetks, Cope.

Dorsal fin above the anal witii short basis and voi-y elon<rate ravs": the
I>ostcrior ray free and longer than the others. Ycntrals posterior.
A^'ertebra; with deep lateral gi'ooves, disproportionally numerous in the
abdominal region, viz. : Abd. 40, caudal 18. Tail deeply bifurcated, its
exterior or snppoi'ting rays, like those of the dorsal, ventral and pectoral,
very stout and oblifpiely segmeiited. Head short, mouth (in the specimen)
inferior; teeth simple, small. Scales with many concentric grooves and
a few radii on the proximal portion. Ko lateral line discoverable.

The pertinence of this genus to the Elopid!:e is indicated in various
ways. The general form is that of ElopB and Mcgalo^js, and the normal
and supernumerary ribs arc quite as in tlie former. The intorneural
spines extending from the head to the dorsal lin, are quite like those of
the same genus. It diilers from both in the posterior position of dorsal
fm, and relatively numerous abdominal vertebra?. From Mo2)s it differs
especially in the long posterior lash-like ray of the dorsal, and the deeply
grooved vertebras.

PiCYMNETES LO^-GI VENTEK, CopC, Sp. nOV.

Established on a very hue and nearly perfect specimen^ preserved on a

,^

/

1871.] 53 ^^ope.

block of lime slate from Chiapas, Mexico. The body is seen in profile,
but the head has been pressed from above, and the view is therefore
oblique.

The general fonn is elongate. The pectoral fins are inserted at the
pectoral plane, and are of moderate length. The ventrals are short and
small. It is uncertain -whether they reach the anal, as the anterior X)art
of that fiu is destroyed. From tlic small number of interhtemal spines,
the anal has probably had a short basis. Caudal lobes narrow. A strong
horizontal interneural spine. The anterior interneurals are like those of
^re(jalops, slender, gently curved rods, apparently, but not really contin-
uous with the neural spines in some places. The dorsal fin laid back-
wards extends to tlie emargination of the caudal. The vertebr^o near the
head are not altered. There appears to have been a laminiform crest on
the head, but the bones thus described may be those of the opposite side
of the cranium. The muzzle appears to be contracted and projecting
beyond the mouth. Three narrow obtuse tectli appear on the edge of
the prcmaxillary bone. Dentary bone, stout. Orbit, round, large ;
entering 4. GG times the head to the posterior margin of the operculum,
and 1.33 times the length of the muzzle. Operculum rounded.

Radii; T>. 2. 13. 1, C. ?. ?. G, G, A. ? V. '? I. 7. P., apparently not
numerous, but very numerously divided. There are about twenty-five
longitudinal series of scales at a 2>oint a short distance anterior to the
ventral fins.

M.
Total length ; ' 0.580

Length to orbit 024

Vertical diameter of orbit ! .018

*' dentary bone OIC

Length to opercular border 08G

" ventral fins SIO

" dorsal '* .803

'* basis caudal 380

Depth at pectoral fins 085

" ventral '' 074

*' posterior margin dorsal 04

" basis caudal ■ 03

This species was found near Tuxtla Chiapas, Mexico, by Dr. J. Berendt,
and by him sent to the Smithsonian Institution. Mus. No. 9819-30.

Fam. (?) CIIAKACINID.E.

ANJ':DoroGON, Cope.

Mouth opening almost vertically upwards. Dentition weak, consisting
of lancet shaped teeth on the dentary and prcmaxillary bones ; maxillary
without or with minute teeth. Post-temporal bone large. Scales with few
radiij no concentric grooves or cells.

<^ |i|

.■I

.1 ^1

Cope.]

54

[Jlarch 3-.

The pertinence oC this genus to the Characimdm cannot be considered
as entirely established, as the specimen described does not display any
of the fins. The appearance is not unlike that of Osteoglosstim, but the
structure of the scales distinguishes it. The great development of the stib-
and postorhital hones, and small size of the preorbital, distinguish it ns
allied to the Characins. Its dentition and general form approach the
genus A.nacyrtus Miill. but it is at the same time distinguished by the lack
of maxillary teeth. In addition, it appears to lack the anterior inter-
neural spines found in so many Characin and CInpeoid genera, and in
families allied to them. They are at least not apparent on the faces of
two fractures across the vertebral column. Three 'oevtebrce are exposed
throughout their length. They are longer than deep, and exhibit the
two lateral grooves common to so many Teleosts. The only scales pre-
served are those above the pectoral fins, with but few above the vcrtebi-al
column. ;N"one of these present traces of the lateral line. The clavicle
makes a right angle with its inferior limb, and with the coracoid, and is
produced backwards at the base of the pectoral fm. The epiclavicle and
post-temj^oral are wide bones. The operculum is developed upwards to
the epiotic, and the interopcrcidum is present. A fragment represents
the suhoperculuni, which was probaly a narrow bone. The coracoid was
a broad vertical lamina, extending horizontally forwards to below the X)re-
opcreulum.

Ak^^dopogon tenuidens, Cope.

Orbit round, its diameter entering the length of the head five times,
and a little exceeding that of the muzzle and closed under jaw. The pro-
tile is gently descending and perhaps slightly concave ; the symphysis
mandibvUi is very stout and presents an angle outwards ; the inferior
margin of the dentary is slightly convex. The maxillary bone is slender.
The suborbital bones together form a shield deeper than wide ; with the
postorbitals they roach the preopereulum. The head increases rapidly in
depth. The scales are large, and extended below the operculum on the
sides of the coracoid region. They have smooth margins, and are every-
where quite thin. The surface is glistening, and in some scales exhibits
under the microscope delicate parallel lines which separate short concave
lines. The middle of the scale is marked with obtuse tubercular radii, or
small or minute tubercles.

lleasuremcnts. 3f.

Length of head • , 0.14

'* of mouth OGl

' ' of coracoid bone 001

Depth head at eye 093

" " vertex 126

" suborbital bone 044

r

Six series of scales between basis of pectoral hn and verteb]-al column..
A mandibular tooth is lancet shaped, and with minutely striate enamel.
A premaxillary is more conic; both are rather small,

9

^

^

*^iZ

^1

1871. j

[Cope

This species may have more affinities with Amia than Nvith the Chara-
cinidic. A singJc specimen was obtained in a chiy iiodulc by the naturalists
of the U. S. Paraguay Exj^cdition under Capt. Page, from the neighbor-
hood of Para. It was accom;;>anied by several spcciniens of a fish from
other nodules, which closoly resembles an Amdorhy nchus, JMusenm of
the Smithsonian Institution.

Oil the occurrence of fossil Cohitidai in Idaho.

' By E. D. Cope.

.fi

[Bead before the American Philosox>Mcal Society, March 3, 1871.)

Of the five genera of extinct Cyprinida; and allied forms discovered by
Capt. Clarence King- in the fresh water deposit of Catharine's Creek,
etc.j IdahOj the writer has been able to indicate the affinities of three.
Thus SeniotiUci^, Anchydojjsis and Mylocyprinas, were regarded as repre-
sentations of existing types of both carnivorous and herbivorous habits,
Oligohelus and Biastichiis were not assigned to any definite position in
relation to known types of the same great group, and I am still compelled
to leave the former in the same uncertain position. Diastichus I find, on
the other hand, presents the peculiar direction of the j^haryngeal teeth,
which is characteristic of the Cohiiidce, alid I suspect that it represents a
form of that family. I am entirely confirmed in this conclusion by tlie
discovery, among the specimens submitted to me by the Smithonian
Institution, of the inferior element of the three modified anterior vertcbrfe,
which are so characteristic of certain families of the Phyf^ostomous fishes.
This portion, moreover, is that which occupies this position among the
CobitidiC only among them. It consists of a longitudinal plate terminat-
ing posteriorly in a bladder-like chamber on each side, each of which is
closed below by a transverse process of the inferior plate : an augular
fissure extends round the ends of these, and. at the angle sends a short
continuation upwards. This is quite similar to what is observed in
Cobilis. The specimen described is apparently adult, and indicates a con-
siderably smaller species tliau either the Diastichus macrodon or D.
parvidai!^. _ ■ ■

The occurrence of Cobitidrc is perhaps the most interesting fact brought
to liiiht by the examination of these extinct fishes. All of the numerous
existing species are found in the Ivastern Hemisphere, and the great
majority in tropical Asia, a few only occurring in Europe and South
Africa. Extinct species are found in the Miocene of Oeningcn. We have,
then, in the gemis Diastichus another example of the occurrence of Asiatic
types in North America prior to the glacial epoch, and as in a freshwater'
fish, strongly suggestive of continuity of territory of the two continents.

■■J- See rroceed. Amer. Phllos. Soc, 1370,539.

Blaiul.]

56

[Miueli 3,

n

I

]\/ot6S relating to tlie Physical Geography and Geology of, and the Disiribu-
Hon of Terrestrial JloUusca in certain of the West India Islands.

By Thomas Bland.

(Mead before the American rhilosojjhical Society, March 3, 187L)

III 1801 I pul>lished (Ann. Lye. A^at. Hist., Is". Y. VII.) a i>aper on the
Geographical distribution of the genera and species of land shells of the
"West India Islands, and in ISGG (Amencan Jour, of Conehology, I.) fur-
ther papers on t)io same subject. From a study of sucli distribution,
without reference to the Physical Geography or Geology of the Islands, I
arrived at the comlusion that they may he divided into the five following
provinces or sections, each having a distinct fannal character, viz, :

I. Cuba with the Isle of Pines, Bahamas, and Bermudas,

II. Jamaica.

III. Haiti.

lY. Puerto Pico with Yieque, the Yirgin Islands, Sombrero, Angullla,
St. Marthi, St. Bartliolomew, and St. Croix.

Y. The Islands to the south of those last mentioned, to and inclusive
of Trinidad.

I remarked that the Islands to the West of Puerto Pico have the greater
generic, as well as specific alliance with the North American Continent
(Mexico and Central Amcrica,«of course, included), and those to the
East and t^outh, with tropical South America.

Within the last year I have endeavored to learn, if any and what
evidence maybe gathered from the depth of the sea arouud, and in the
vicinity of the Islands, of their former greater proximity to each other
and the adjacent continents, sufficient to account for or throw li<dit on
the observed facts^ of land shell distribution. The result is extremely
interesting, and in the main confirmatory of the views above expressed.

The ]^>ritish Admiralty Charts have afforded data, chiefly to the 100
fathom line of soundings only, while rec^ently, through the kindness of Mr.
Pawson W. Pawson, Governor in Chief of Barbados and the Windward
Islands, I have obtained particulars of the deep sea soundings, taken in
the Caribbean sea, especially for Telegraph Cable purposes, by United
States and British Naval Officers, which supply information of great
value, as I propose in this paper to show. lam also indebted for much in-
formation to "The West India Pilot," published by the British Admiralty.
I reserve, for another opportunity, observations on the faunas of the
first three of the above mentioned sections, now confining myself to the
fourth and tifth, with incidental reference to that of the second. Since
tlie date of my former papers, my knowledge of the species inhabiting the
Islands embraced in the latter sections has been largely increased, for
which my acknowledgments are due principally to Mr. Pobert Swifr, of
St. Thomas, Dr. Cleve, of the University of Upsala, Governor Pawson,
rind Mr. P. J. Lechmcre Guppy, of Trinidad.

-V

I

\

V

i

I

F

Sectio:n- IV. Fu&rto Rico with Vieqite, the Virgin Llands, Sombrero,
Anguilla, St. JJiCrtin, St. Bdrtlwlomew, and St. Croix.

Puerto Uico, Yieqne and the Virgin TslauJs, of which Anegada is the
most eastern, stand on one and the same bank, an elevation of which to
the extent of somewhat less than 40 fathoms (2^0 feet) would unite tlie
whole, converting them into one Island. Sombrero is on anotlier bank,
about 40 miles from the Viri^in bank, and 23 miles from the north end of
the Anguilla bank. The deptli of the channels which separate the Som-
brero bank ^rom the Virgin bank oa the west, and the northern end of the
Anguilla bank to the east, is not known, but soundings arc recorded, at
their margins, of IGO fathoms (OGO fcetj and 100 fathoms (1,140 feet), with-
out bottom.

Anguilla, St. Martin and St. Bartholomew stand on the western edge
of another bank of considerable extent. Its southeastern end is 14 miles
only from the Antigua bank, and the depth of water between the two is
upwards of 122 fathoms (732 feet). An elevation of the Anguilla bank of
about 40 fathoms (240 feet) would unite the Islands upon it.

The land shell fauna o^ the above named Islands is unquestionably the
same ; it has some alliance with that of Haiti, but very little with that of
the Islands to the south of the Anguilla bank. ISTot only is the absence
of certain genera prevailing in Sections!., II., and III. noticeable, but
the diminished number of representatives of others is equally so, for
example :

in§L §111. §IV.

Megnlomnstoma 18 species, 1 3

Alcadia <) <« % ^

Strophia 27 '* 2 2

Macrocoramus .35 " lo 2

CylindrcUa 93 '^ 28 G

The fact Wr.xt Meg alomastoma, Alcadia^ Sirophia, and Macroceramus are
not represented in the Islands south of the Anguilla bank (g V.) and that
in those Islands there are 4 species only of CyUndrella, aftbrds striking
proof of the dilTerence of their faunas.

St. Croix is not unfrequently classed with the Virgin Islands, from
which it is 35 miles distant, but it stands on a bank disconnected from
any others and with very deep water around it. Soundings are on record
(taken, I believe, by Capt. Parsons, R. K,), between it and the Virgin
bank, about the mid-channel, of 1,550 fathoms (0,300 feet), and not far
from its northern shore of 2,000 fathoms (12,000 feet), withoutbottom being
found.

The following soundin£s_ to the eastward were obtained by the U. S.
S. Yantic, in 1870, between St. Thomas and Saba :

fathoms, feet.
K Lat. ISO 01' 50'^ W. Long. G40 10' 20'^~l,825 = 10,950

170 55' 00^'. '^ 630 50' 30^^-1,240 - 7,440

A. P. S.~VOL. XII— ir

ill

I

Bluiul.]

68

[March 3,

CoiLsidc]-ii3;!; the facts of distribution already given, and the above
mentioned .soundings, it seems liigldy probable that very deep ^Yater will
be found between the Anguilla and Antigua banks.

In this connection it is interesting to notice that the depth of the sea is
1,37{> fathoms (8,2;-^G feet) between Cuba and Jamaica, in N. Lat, 1&^ 3G',
W. Long. 7GO 08^, a somewhat neaj- approximation to the Latitude of the
great depth between the Virgin bank (St. Thomas) and Saba.

The fauna of St. Croix is closely allied to that of Puerto Ilico, and seeing
the depth of water between them, it is a signilicant fact that GaracoUa
(IleHx), caracoUa L. one of the characteristic species of the latter, is
found subfossil only, with other extinct species, and among them a StropUa,
in the former. MeAjalommtoma, Alcadia, and Macroceramus do not exist
in St. Croix, while there is one species of CylindreUa. With farther
reference to the soundings, the Latitude of Jamaica, and the nature of
the fauna of St. Cj'oix, I should mention that Mer/cdomasto'mn and Stropliia
have none, and 'MaoTocaramu^ one representative (a Cuban species) in
Janiaica, in which. Island there are, however, 14 species of AUadut and
TjI oi VyUiidrcUa. Sombrero has one living species {Ghondropoma J-ulMni
IT.) which is also found, with a StropMa, embedded in the phosphatic
limestones of that Island,

Professor Cope lately referred to me, for determination, shells from the
matrix between tlie femoral condyles of Loxom-ijlii^ laiidens, Cope, one of
the great extinct Podeuts, the bones of which have been found in the
caves of Anguilla. The shells arc closely allied to Tudora piipaeformis,
Sow, now living on Anguilla, and apparently identical with an unde-
termined species which inhabits St. Martin.

'Section V. — 8ithdimsion 1. Islands on the St. Ghrisio^jlier and Antigua
hanks, 3Io7itserrat, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, and Barbados'^'.

Subdivision 2. Si. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada and the Grenadines, To-
bago, and Trinidad.

In former papers I did not treat the fauna of the Islands in tliis section
as capable of subdivision, but with my present increased knowledge must
necessarily do so.

Immediately to the south of the Anguilla bank there is, to the eastward,
a bank on which stand Barbuda and Antigua, and to the westward, another
(separated from the adjacent Islands by channels of a greater depth than

■ 200 fathoms, 1,200 feet), which constitutes the base of St, Kustatius, St.
Christopher, and Nevis. At a short distance from the northern end of
the latter bank stands Saba (about 2|- nillcs in diameter,) rising })erpen-
dicularly from the sea to the height of 2, 820 feet, with the 100 fathoms
(GOO feet) line of soundings about half a mile from its western, and a little

' more than half that distance from its eastern side. Late soundings between
St. Eustatius and Saba (Lat. 17° ?>V 10", Long. 03= OS' 30") give a depth
of 343 fathoms (2,058 feet).

* I omit mention of scverjil smiill Tslanils goograpliically Ijolongiiigto tliosc cnnmcrated in both
subdivisions.

■-t

.»

W^

L

-■ 1 ■_ v^r. ■H--V." ^

^jJV^Wt-. -i

1871.]

59

[Bland

"^

J

.>

Within 3 miles S. W. from Saba is the Saba bank, which forms nearly
a parallelogramj its longest sides about 32 miles and its shortest about 20
miles in extent, the eastern edge fringed with a narrow ledge of living
coral, sand and rock, nearly 80 miles in length and varying in depth from
0} to 10 fathoms.

It is remarkable that an elevation similar to that mentioned with re-
fercnce to the Virgin and AuguiUa banks (less than 10 fathoms,) would
unite Barbuda and Antigua, also St. Eustatius, St. Christopher and Nevis,
and convert the Saba bank into an Island.

With rcsi>cct to Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, l^c, the following
particulars of soundings lately taken by the U. S. S. "Yantic," Com-
mander Irwin, are extremely interesting :
Between

Lat. IG' 40^

fathoms.

Antigua and Guadeloupe,
Guadeloupe and Dominica,
Dominica and Martinique,
Martinqiie and St. Lucia,

St. Lucia and St. Vincent,

((

150 45'.
try-- OQ',
140 17'.

" 13- 33^

a

i c

Long

a
a

01- 48'.
Gio 37'.
Gio 20'.
GIG 04'.
Gio 20'.

348
850

1,078
1,232
1,34G

feet.

- 2,088
= 2, 700

= 6,468
= 7,392
= 8,076

Capt. Parsons, R. Ts., found on a line of soundings from St. Vincent to
Barbados, depths of 350, 95G, 1,218 in (about) Lat. 13^ 05', Long.
GO"^ 25', 1,211, and 147 fathoms, the greatest ascertained depth being equal
to 7,808 feet.

The same officer obtained the following results from soundings between

Barbados and Tobago, viz. :

fathoms.

40'.

oO'.

N. Lat. 130 00^

120 40^
130 '-

12^ 10'.
110 40^
11=^27\

li
li
li

a

W. Long. 59

a
ti

it
ti

a

i(

59- 50'
6O0 05'.

GO-- 10'
GO- 25'.

feet.

1,800
3,420

4,G80
1,030—- 6,180
1,060 = G,360
500 — 3,000 withoutbottom.

300
570

780

I have already given the depths between Martinique and St. Lucia, that
Islandand St. VinccntandthelatterandBarbados. St. Vincent isseparated
fromthenorthernendofthe Grenada bank, on which Grenada and the Gren-
adines arc situated, by a narrow channel, not over, Capt. Parsons remarks,
800 fathoms (1,800 feet) deep. The Grenadines consist of a chain of Islands
and rocks extending for GO miles between Grenada and St. Vincent. The
depth found on soundings taken l)y the ' ' Yantic, " gave on and near to the
west side of St. Vincent, in al)out the Latitude of its northern end, 1,030
fathoms (6480 feet), opposite the channel to the south of St. Vincent 594
fathoms (3,5G4 feet), and along the West side, in close proximity to the
Grenada bank, from llSTorth toSouth, 880 fathoms C5,2S0 feet), 801 fathoms
(4,806 feet), 910 fathoms (5,40G feet), and 545 fathoms (3,270 'feet).

Trinidad and Tobago arc on soundings (less than 100 fathoms), both
being in fact on the submarine slope of the South American Continent,
and the deeper water found by the ' ' Yantic " between the former Island
and the Grenada bank, in (about) Lat. U- 50', Long. 610 45', was 38G

, L

iF

^1

''

Eland.]

60

March 3,

fathoms (3,316 feet), while the maximum depth known, as above stated,
between Tobago and Barbados, is 1,000 fathoms (0,:]00 feet).

It appears from the foregoing evidence, that Trinidad, Tobago, the
Grenada bank (an elevation of which to the extent of 40 fathoms would
give an Island nearly 100 miles in length), and St. Vincent, stand on a
partially submerged ridge, an extension of the South American Continent,
having, say, 1,000 fathomsdepth of wateron the west side, andstill greater
depths between its northern termination and St. Lucia, also on its eastern
side between it and Barbados, and between the latter Island and Tobago.
The summit of this ridge is 3,31G feet beneath the level of the sea be-
tween Trinidad and the Grenada bank, and, say, 1,800 feet between that
and St. Vincent, while the altitudes above the sea are, of Trinidad o,100,
Tobago 1,800, Grenada 2,740, and St. Vincent about 8,000 feet.

The genera and species of land Mollusks wdiich occur in the Islands on
the " submerged ridge " just mentioned (Trinidad to St. Lucia inclusive),
are chiefly allied to those which are characteristic of Venezuela, the por-
tion of the Continent contiguous to Trinidad. The species of Helix,
in its wide api)lication, including Slerwpus, Ilyalina, and Zorntes, are 15
only in number, while there are of BuUmus (as restricted by Albers) 5, nnd
ol Bulimukts 14 species, the total number of species of the latter ia the
West Indies, being about 38. The subgenus Bcnlellaria {EeUx) is character-
istic of the Islands embraced in Subdivision 1 of Section V., but has few
representatives in those named in Subdivision 2. J), perpkxa, Fer., is
peculiar to the Grenadines and Grenada, JD. Isabella, Fer., is common to
one of the Grenadines, Barbados, and Cayenne, (French Guiana,) and J).
crbiculaia, Fer., to St. Lucia, Martinique and Cayenne.

The genus BuU/mis, of which the subgenera represented are Bonis,
BeUcycMlus, and Eitrytus, all South American, occurs in the West Indies ■
only in the group (subdivision 2) embracing St. Lncia and Trinidad and the
intermediate Islands. Borus oblongus inhabits Barbados, but it was
introduced there from St. Vincent by the late Rev. Mr. Parkinson.
Eimjh's auMcostyhts, Pf., occurs both in St. Lucia and Demerara.
With respect to Trinidad, it is certainly curious that we have there a
species of DiplommMina (D. Iluitoni, Pf ) and of Ennea {E. Ucolor,
Hutton). the latter found also in Grenada and St. Thomas, both livinf^ in
the East Indies. Gupi;)y has lately discovered a species to which he has
given the generic name of Blandiella, bnt it is, I think, a Truncatella,
allied, at least, to the subgenus Taheilia, H. and A. Adams, the type of
which is T. porrecta, Gould, of Taheiti.

The land shell fauna of the Islands in subdivision 2 have marked alliance
with that of Cayenne. There are on that group six species of Helix which
are also found in Cayenne, viz. : Deniellaria orhiculala, nux-doiticukUa,
dentiens, Isabella, badia, and Thelidomtis discolor. The genus Ui/clophorus
has no less than seven sx^ecics in Martinique, Dominica, and Guadeloupe
but none in any other part of the AVest Indies, while one, a diffoient
species, inhabits Cayenne. In Barbados no member of the family
Cyclostomacea has been discovered. I have already referred to some
other peculiarities of this fauna as compared with that of the Islands

■%

_^ Y _ ■_\

u ^^-

isn.j

61

[Rland

;

embraced in section IV, and should add that DcntcHaria docs not occur in
tliose Ishiud-s. IleUx predominates over BioUmus in North America and
the Islands in Sections L, II., III., and IV, while tlie reverse is the case
in South America, and there is at least an increased proportionate num-
ber of Bidi/ui6s, as compaj-ed with Ilelix hi Section V.

I have spoken of a "ridn;e'^ on which the Islands in subdivision 2 of
that section st^nd (St. Lucia excepted), and must remark in addition,
that there may have existed an extension of the South American Con-
tinent, from tlic eastejii boundary of Guinna to some point west of the
Grenada banlv, and running Xorth to the neighborhood of the Ano-uilla
bank, o)i the western side of which extension there was the fauna now to
be studied in the Islands from St. Lucia to Tiinidad, and on the eastern
side, in those from the St. Christopher and Antigua banks to Barbados.

Ri;ference has been made to the similariiy of depths in nearly the same
Latitude between Jamaica and Cuba, and Saba and the Virgin bank.

Mr. Rawson lias directed my attention to a comparison of the following

depths in the Caribbean sea, ascertained by soundings between Kingston

(Jamaica-^) and Chagres, and those betA^■eou Barbados and Tobago :

Lat. 12-^ 00^ Long. 79° 25'— 924 fa. Lat. 120 10', Long. (iO- 05'— 1,030 fa.

'^ 11^25', " 70O 30'— 909 fa. " lio 40', " ' CO^ 10'— 1,000 fa.

Taking a wide view of land shell distribution in the West Indies, it
may be said that the fauna of the Islands on the northern side of the
Caribbean sea, from Cuba to the Virgin and Anguilia banks, was derived
from Mexico and Central America, and tliat of the Islands of the eastern
side, from the Anligua and St. Christopher banks to Trinidad, from
tropical South Ameiica. It is noticeable that the mountains in the foimer
Islands, range, generally, from West to East, but in the hitter from South
to Koi-th, excepting in Tobago and Trinidad, where they are parallel with,
or in the same direction as tbe coast mountains of the adjacent continent.

The present geological condition of the Islands ailoids ample evidence
of the Ia]>se of vast periods of time hi the earlier tertiary epoclis, during
which the Limestone formations, extensively developed in most of the
Islands, were deposited. The white Limestone of Jamaica., referred by
Sawkins (Geology of Jamaica, Loudon, 1SG9), to the Post Pliocene,
covers more than tbree-fourths of the Island and is computed at 2000
feet in thickness. It rests on the yellow Limestone (Miocene), which, he
remarks, during the deposition of the foimer, ''sank to great depths, in
some places apparently 3000 feet, so as to permit the growth of those
great coral structures, from the debris of which the enormous calcareous
development of the white Limestone has been derived. The lapse of
time required for these important phenomena cannot be easily realized by
the imagination."

That the Islands, or some of them, were formerly united and formed
part of an ancient continent, may, it would seem for various reasons, be
nfcrred, and the discovery of mammalian and other remains in Anguilia,
Sombrero, etc., is an important one.

* The TiBdro bank, wifliin '>() miies.orthe souUicrn shores of Jamaira. with an olovation of 30 to
^0 fathoms would give an Island luO miles long, 3'J in breadth usar its centre, and -1.) at its western
C'Ige.

h I

I

in

ifi

Bland.]

62

[Marcli 3,

V

Referring to the Anguilla cave remains, Prof. Cope remarks (Proc. Acad.
:N". 8. Phila., 18G8) on their indicating ^Hhat the Caribbean continent had
not been submerged prior to tlie close of the Post-pliocene, and that its
connection was with the other Antilles, while a wide strait separated it
from the then comparatively remote sliores of North America."

The occurrence with the Anguilla fossils of a land shell of a species
now living, points to the age of the existing tauna, but the marked'
difference, both generic and specific, between the present land shell fauna
of the Islands upon and to the North and West of the Anguilla bank and
those to the South of it, may be taken as evidence of their early and con-
tinued separation.

Captain Parsons, in MS. Notes on the Geology of some of the "West
Indies, for a perusal of which I am indebted to Mr. Pawson, observes
that the eastern or windward edge of the Grenada bank is at an average
distance of 7 miles from the Islands, while the western edge is not more
than two-thirds of a mile, and that there is a similar great disparity in
other of the banks and Islands. lie concludes that such increased develop-
ment of the eastern over the western sides is primarily due to the equa-
torial current, which running for ages through the Islands has brought
and dcj^osited material on tlie windward side.^

On this subject, the following quotation from ^'The Natural History of
Barbadoes,'- by the IXcv. W. Hughes, London, 1750, is really interesting,
and particularly so in conuectiou with the views of Sawkins with regard
to Jamaica.

" The current of tlie Deluge between the Tropics ran from East to West.
Notice the shattered condition of the eastward side of the chain of hills
and chffs, which are as barriers to the Island (Barbados), from Cuckold's
Point to Conset's Bay, for as they face the East their torn state on that
side alone and no where else, shews that they not only ])y their situation,
lirst stemmed, but as they were higher than any other part of tlie Island,
they wholly bore the repeated percussions of the current in the gradual
ascent of the Deluge. Notice, also, the coping tigure of the Island irom
East to AVest, for if wo view narrowly the sevei-al gradual descents of so
many continued ridges of rock, like cascades, descending precipitously
to the westward (for instance, the long chain of hills from Mount Gilboa,
in St. Lucia's Parish, to the Black Rock in St. Michael's), wc shall con-
clude from the deep soil on the eastward of these where the land is level,
and from the rugged and bare washed surface of the west, that the latter was
thus torn by the violence of the waters falling over them, and the former,
the effect of the subsided sediment upon the decrease of the Deluge.
The want of such a bed of rocks from Black Rock to St. Anne's Castle
caused the chasm which opens to the sea through Bridgetown opposite
to the Valley of St. George's. The course of the gullies is, too, from East
to West, and they were caused by the current of the Deluge, the regular
course of which to the westward between the tropics was the natural con-
sequence of the easterly trade wind.-'

* In the Bahamas tlie Islands are, generally speaking, on the windward side of their respective
groups und banks.— (A'c^^yH.)

>

:>-

P:.V

^ -^

^ j_i_

187 1.]

63

[HI and

Sawkins, in the Report on Jamaicn, to -svhicli I have already referred,
sliows that tlic highest elevations on that Island are situated to the east,
and the inclined slope rises from the Avest. With respect to this, he
dra\vs ''deductions from two important elements:

"1. The great equatorial currents Jiave existed in times past as at present.

" 2. That the trade wijids also prevailed with the same uniformity."

Keferring to vestiges of volcanic action and certain stratified deposits
towards the eastern end of the Island, containing pebbles and debris of
previously existing rocks, Sawkins remarks: "This (volcanic) action
might have operated intermittently, so as to permit the groAvth of coral
reefs, . marine animals, &c., of which the remains are contained in the
limestone formations. Again, supposing the deposits to have originated
from local igneous or volcanic action, or from debris derived from islands
to the cast, submersion having intervened, the lighter materials and finer
sediment would be transported by the currents to the vrestw^ard, these in-
fluences combining with sxibsequent changes of level, account for the
prolongation of the land to the westward."

In connection with the facts stated I can only incidentally refer to the
barrier presented by Trinidad, Tobago, the Grenada bank, and St. A'incent
to the distribution, to the westward, of marine forms living at greater
depths than 400 fatlioms ; and to the same barrier and others offered by the
Islands and banks to the Xortli of St. Vincent, to the flow of the equatorial
current into the Caribbean sea. Also to the existence of a cold current at
great depths between Barbados and Tobago, shown by the temperatures
ascertaiu'jcl by Capt. Parsons, viz. :

Surface, Max. 79^ Fall., at 1,030 fathoms, Min. Sti-

u g20 " *' 1 OGO " '* 38^.5

I

Slated Meeting, March 17, 1871,

Present, seventeen nieiubers.

Dr. Wood, President, in the elialr.

■ Pljotograplis of Mr. Frederiek Graff and VvoL D. P. Sandber-
gcr, of Wlirzbnrg, ^\ ere received for tlie Album.

A letter of envoy was received from tlie Swcdisli Bureau of
Statistics.

Letters of ackncnvledgment were received from TIerr Ilai-
dinger, of Vienna (for Proc. Xo. 81, 82); Dr. D, P. Sandberger
(81, 82, 83); Ediiibourg Observatory (82); Prof. Bunsen (82,
83); Prof. KircliIioff(82, 83) ; Smithsonian Institute and Essex
Institute (85); Uarrisburg State Library and Baltimore Pea-
body Institute (Proc. 85 and Trans. XIY.-IIL) ; D. 11. Storer,
Yale College (85, XIV.-I.) ; West Point Academy Library

-!i

G4

(85, XIV.~III.); N. Y. N". II. Lyceum, New York, New Jersey,
and Massachusetts Historica] Societies, Boston Public Library,'
and American Antiquarian Society (all for Trans. XIV.-L)'.
An extract from a letter of Air. Carlicr to Mr. Durand,
respecting the Michaux Legacy, was read.

Donations for tbe Library were received from the E. Prussian
Academy, the Society at Leyden (Flora Batava), the'' Sta-
tistical Bureau of Sweden, tlie Museum of Com. Zool. of Har-
vard College, Prof. Mayer of S. Bethlehem, the College of
Pharmacy, Meclicid News and Penn. Monthly, of Philadelphia,
Mrs. M. E. Tyson, of Baltimore, the State Geolooist of Illinois
the Mhmesota Historical Society, and Mr. W. H. Jackson.

Tiie death of Judge Conyngham, of Wilksbarre, Pa., a mem-
ber of the Society, Avas announced by the Secretary, and on
motion of Prof. Cresson, tho Rev. Bishop Stevens was ap-
pointed to prepare an obituary notice of tiie deceased.

'j'he death of Prof Charles M. Wetherill, of Lehigh Uni-
versity, Pa., was announced by the Secretary, and on motion
of Prof. Cresson, Prof. Frazer was appoijited to prepare an
obituary notice of the deceased.

Prof. Cope exhibited a suite of fossils obtained by further
exploration of the Bone Cavern near Port Kennedy, and in-
formed the members of the progress of the examination. A
discussion ensued, in whieli Prof: Cope expressed Ids views of
migration, considering that' the higher types belonging to
Eocene and ]\liocene ages (including the fresh water fishes,
Idahoj, being all Asiatic, show a land emigratiou over the
space now occupied by the North Pacific Ocean. AYhcn this
fauna was destroyed by cold, the sinking of the North Pacific
area, and the ice barrier together prevented its restoration.
It was, therefore, replaced by a fauna of a lower type from
Central America.

Mr. Chase communicated his views of the anticvclonic
character of our winds and periodic storms between tlie 25°
and 4G° N. Lat. parallels, and between the meridians of Pas-
samaquoddy and 100° AYest.

Pending nominations Nos. GG9, 670^ and new nominations
Nos. 671, 672, 673, 674, were read.
And the meeting was adjourned.

1-

I-

*

^'

Marcli 17,1871.]

65

[Cliaae.

i

/

•^

AViNDS OF tup: United States.
By Plixy Earle Chase.

(Eead before ilie American Philoso-pMcal Society, March 17, 1871.)

Xotwitlistauding Ferrel's mathematical, and Galton's practical, demon-
stration of the tendency, in Nvind.s of propulsion, to become anti-cyclonic,
many meteorologists regard cyclonic atmospheric currents as normal, in
fair as well as in stormy weather. Such an impression may be naturally
strengthened by the admitted facts, 'that most of the European Avinds are
cyclonic, that all currents flowing iu towards a centre of low pressure,
speedily become cyclonic, and that the system of aspiration induced by the
diminished pressure at the equator, is the proximate cause of all our at-
mospheric circulation.

But it should be remembered on the other band, that the normal mo-
tion of the principal oceanic, atmospheric and magnetic currents, both
polar and equatorial, and the daily veering of the wind consequent on the
progressive heating of the earth's surface, arc confessedly anti-cyclonic;
that centres of violent and rapid commotion must necessarily cover a
smaller area than tlie less disturbed peripheries which help to restore the
equilibrium; iliatthe air drifis more often in alternate ridges and trouohs
than in spirals; and that downward pressure is the impelhng force by
which the partial vacua, produced by increase of tempei'atni-c or by con-
densation of vapor, aK .upplied. Each of tliese considerations is indicative
of systems of winds over the entire globe, which are normally anti-cyclo-
nic, and only exceptionally cyclonic. Even in storms, the blending of
opposite currents may take place at a circumference as well as at a centre,
and condensation of vapor may be going on along an extended line, the
equilibrium being restored by the pressure of n,n adjacent ridge, as well
asover a limited area towards which there is an influx from all quarters.
There may, therefore, be anti-cyclonic as well as cyclonic storms. In fact,
as I stated at the last meeting of the Society, most of our recent storms
have been of the former character, and the more closely I have s*',rutinize-d
the Signal Service observations, the more strongly Inive I been impressed
■with the belief that most, if not all, of our north-easterly storms are anti-
cyclonic as a whole, though thuy may bo accompanied by limited and
comparatively insignificant local cyclones, and although, in consequence
of the trend of our Atlantic coast and the in-draught towards the gulf
sti'cam, they may assume a form more or less cyclonic as they leave our
shores.

The charts in Coffui's "W'inds of the Northern ITemisphere, seem to me
to furnish ample contirmatiou to these views, although, in consequence
of their very admirable fnlne?s of detail, general tendencies are some-
times disguised by the local deflecting influences of mountains, lakes and
valleys. In order to eliminate such local disturbances, I have grouped
by States and Territories, all thowinds in the first volume of the "Kc-
suits of Meteorological Observations," from 1854 to 1859 inclusive, and
computed the resultant for the entire period for each district.

A. r. S. — VOL. XII — I

I"

Chase. J

66

)

[March 1

rt

I. Nunibei" of Winds from each cardinal point.

N. N.E. E. S.E. S. S.W.

Britisli America 1651 3599 853 2615 2098 4735

Maine 2008 4331 1198 2664 2248 6349

Kevv Hampshire 860 1464 1234 1607 933 2652

Vermont 3585 761 401 1150 6225 2018

Mas?-acluisetts. . .: 3681 7158 2619 6068 3802 13656

Rhode Island 133 518 73 120 241 720

Connecticut 3560 2636 675 1569 1842 4352

New York 4689 6581 3692 6582 8676 14314

New Jersey ..,. 1016 2599 658 1123 1056 4158

Pennsylvania 4556 6399 6743 6848 6398 13617

Delaware 39 147 59 90 42 164

]\hirylana & D. ot C 1650 2849 1082 1674 2621 3812

Virginia 3725 3230 1759 1790 4590 6616

North Carolina 1010 1760 470 512 809 2019

Sonth Carolin;i 1248 3252 1036 2026 1505 3989

Georgia 1585 3436 2052 2595 2415 3240

Florida 2374 6455 2651 3831 1411 4265

Alabama 076 508 548 1307 734 859

Mississippi 923 929 738 1211 971 1253

Louisiana 736 969 194 1040 793 782

Texas 4357 1011 1168 2966 5871 1510

Tennessee 507 649 316 884 980 755

Kentucky 604 1343 447 762 1218 3159

Ohio 3151 5277 1976 6509 4742 14747

Michi^-an 2079 3508 2776 . 3427 3061 7300

Indiana 1449 1086 990 1853 1910 2901

Illinois 3510 7151 3593 69G3 8026 1121.S

Missonri 531 492 678 1105 906 838

Wisconsin 3.321 4932 26S9 4073 4150 6967

Iowa 2249 3144 1636 5370 3648 5891

Minnesola 915 753 910 782 1469 710

Nebraska 1035 436 235 598 1226 434

Kansas 984 491 360 757 1371 559

IMcxico 172 345 73 59 68 144

Gal if ornia 985 . 235 185 904 1272 1175

Bahamas 1G3 348 252 292 217 418

Gnatemala 56 806 18 16 3 262

Surinam 89 803 417 427 141 39

II. Percentages; nnd Resultant Winds.

N. NE. E. S.E. S. S.W. W. N.W,

British America 7 15 4 11 9 20 13 21

Maine 7 14 4 9 7 21 11 27

Ncwllanipshire.......... .. 5 9 7 lu 6 16 19 28

Vermont 17 4 2 6 SI 10 10 20

Massachusetts ..6 11 4 9 ^^ 6 22 13 29

Khode Island 4 17 2 4 8 23 6 36

Connecticut 8 13 3 8 9 22 7 30

New York 6 9 5 9 12 20 21 18

New Jersey 6 15 4 8 6 24 14 23

Pennsylvania 6 8 9 9 8 17 22 21

Delaware 4 16 6 9 5 17 10 33

Maryland & 1^. of C 7 13 5 8 12 17 20 IS

Vn-ginia 13 12 6 6 16 20 12 15

North Carolina 10 18 5 5 8 21 21 12

SouLli Carolina 7 19 6 ]2 9 23 10 14

Georgia 7 15 9 12 11 15 12 19

w.

N.W.

3055

4932

3324

8342

3057

4641

1976

4040

8020

18G95

199

1114

1498

5940

14882

13342

2377

3989

17346

16930

97

316

4410

3870

3400

431 9

2080

nn

1616

2306

2611

4118

1801

3)41

897

1096

812

1447

134

659

1009

llSl

393

715

1453

1650

7449

9828

6170

5608

2591

2418

8063

0126

1081

710

5374

59>^6

3063

7374

1209

2033

287

717

182

586

85

123

979

904

200

182

6

52

5

19

Resultant.

K. 85^

'28' W.

'^ 72

47 "

" 75

39 *■

S. 71 46 '■

N.78 26 ■•

" 65

4 •■

" 72 43 '■

S. 77

34 "

N.81

45 '•

'* 89 20 ■•

" 55 23 "

S. 88

59 •■

" 81

31 ■*

N. 78 22 "

S. 65 57 •

K. 74 59 '•

i

c

\

^■—b^v^ni "-St "-^i^I^B-^-ti^ ^^^'^K

^v r^-

1871.]

67

[Chaae.

^

^

^

Florida 9 25 10 15 5 16 7 13 N 50 7 E.

Ahibania 10 8 8 20 11 13 14 16 S- 44 S5W

Mississippi 11 11 9 15 12 15 10 17 " 76 4S "

Louisiana 14 18 4 20 15 15 2 12 " 67 10 E.

Texas 2.T 5 6 16 31 8 5 6 "13 28"

Tennessee 11 12 6 17 19 14 7 14 " 8 57W.

Kentucky 6 13 4 7 11 30 14 15 "67 53"

Ohio 6 10 4 12 9 27 14 18 "67 45"

Micliigan 6 10 8 10 9 22 18 17 "74 26"

Indiana...., 9 7 7 12 13 19 17 16 " 67 40 "

Illinois 6 12 6 12 14 20 14 16 - 52 18 '■

Missouri 8 8 10 19 14 13 17 11 " 17 34 '^

Wisconsin 9 13 7 11 11 19 14 16 " 79 50 ■'

Iowa 7 10 5 17 11 18 9 23 " 68 6 "

Minnesota 10 9 10 9 17 8 14 23 >^B2 39-

Nebraska 21 9 5 12 25 8 6 14 S. 50 4"

Kansas.... 19 9 7 14 26 11 3 11 " 24 18E.

Mexico 16 32 7 6 6 13 8 12 K.1615"

Calil'ornia 15 3 3 14 19 18 15 13 S. 56 53 W.

Bahauias.... 8 17 V2 14 ,10 20 10 9 " 23 53 E.

Uuatenuila. 5 66 2 1 0 21 1 4 IS". 43 17 "

Surinam 5 41 22 22 7 2 0 1 "80 53"

^

This grouping-j by exhibiting the excess or deficiency, in the percent-
age of any given wind, fioni the percentage of the same wind in adja-
cent districts, shows local irregidarit.ies which are often easily explicable
by the physical features of the neighborhood, and enables us, by plotting
the general resultants on a map, to demoustrate th- :inti-cyclonic motion
of the air, over the entire region between the twenty-fifth and forty-fifth
parallel of latitude, and between Passamaquoddy Bay on the east, and
the 100th meridian on the west. It shows, moreover, that there is a nor-
mal intersection of a polar (N. E.) current off the coast of Florida, with
an equatorial (S. W.) current from the Bahama Islands, and a similar in-
tersection of a south- eastei'ly and south-westerly equatorial current, (the
latter having been refrigerated by the Sierra Nevada,) near the common
boundary line of Nebraska and Kansas. The former of these intersec-
tions is analogous to the one referred to by Mr. Scott, as indicative of an
approacliing gale iu the British Islands, and suggests an obvious explana-
tion of the gulf stream cyclones, as well as of the cyclonic winds in
Western Europe; the latter helps to account for a considerable propor-
tion of our land storms.

The comparis^m of these currents and intersections with Blodget's
hyetal charts is very instructive, and I feel little hesitation in predicting
that a more thorough acquaintance with the winds of Alaska and British
America, will develop another anti-cyclonic system, referable to a ciiffer-
ent centre of disturbance, with intersecting normals near the northern
boundary line between the polar and equatorial prevailing winds, and
perhaps in the valley of the Saskatchewan, which has been specially de-
signated by Professor Tlcnry as a storm-breeding district.

s

4.

■ ^^

Ouise.J

68

[Aioril 7,

I!

Eesembla^^ce of Atmospheric, Magnetic and Oceanic Currents.

By Plihy Eakle Chase.

[Head before the American FUlosopMcal Society, April 7, 1871/
My bc'licrtliat tcrrcstial magnetism is dependent solely upon flnid cur-
rents, electrified by convection and by the condensation of vapor, led me
to look for some confirmation of my views in the results of my recent
discussions of the winds of the United States. My attentioi; was first
drawn to tlic resemblance between the looped isogenic hues ui the eastern
equatorial portion of the Pacific Ocean, and the anti-cyclonic course of the
winds in the Gulf States. The undoubted rapidity of magnetic action,
a rapidity analogous to, if not identical with, that of luminiferous vibra-
tions, renders it probable that the flexure of the isogonic hues, at any
given point, may be determined by the resultant of all the forces acting
at that point, and that the equatorial loops are, therefore, expressions of

equatorial disturbance.

If the same disturbance is communicated to the more sluggish air, its
culmination may naturally be sought at some point northward and east-
ward, because of the well-known laws of current detlection. The prin-
cipal thermal contrasts which contribute to the establishment of currents,
are: 1st, land and water; 2d, polar and equatorial; 3d, heat and cold at
isabnormal centres. It seems reasonable to suppose that these triple con-
trasts should b() so mutually related, that there may be some system of
rectangular coordinate planes which would present each of them as a

maximum.

A great circle cutting the equator on the meridians of 100^ "W. and 80^
E., and passing through the geographic centre of the land hemisphere,
fol'lows tlie general trend of the American coast from Florida to New-
foundland, skirts the equatorial isogonic and the Florida atmospheric
loops, finds the western limit of our anti-cyclonic system of winds
at a point about midway between the magnetic polo and the equator,
and crosses the equator on the meridians and near the centres of greatest
Horizontal Force. A co-ordiuate great circle following the meridians of
10^ W. and 170'' E., intersects the magnetic equator of miiiinuun inten-
sity ncai- its greatest northern and southern elongations. The third
co-ordinate great circle corresponds very neaily with the dividing plane
between the land and water hemispheres. The principal north pole of
decUnation and the Asiatic equatorial intersection of the fine of no varia-
tion, are on the meridians first named, which traverse the intersections
of the first and third co-ordinate circles. A great circle intersecting the
second co-oidinate on the eqnatoi-, and passing near the North Aiiierican
pole of declination, would cut the first of these meridians (100° W.) at
an angular distance ffom the pole analogous to that of the Florida wind
loop from the equator, traversing the principal isogonic loops in such
manner as to exhibit the magnetic symmetry of the entire globe to the
best advantage. No other system of rectangular co-ordinate planes
would meet with so little land interruption, or woidd divide the globe
into hemispheres with so great current-producing contrasts.

I
%

i

#

L

L

\

^ vuh^^^VH-:^ X+T*'*^^ ■

■^; >v*^

■ ^_^A ^J ■

ri^jr-^^wVt n ^^-.^^ -^-^

rt LO^T^ — TT."^

1871. ]

69

[Chase.

t

s

\

An observer, therefore, near the centre of the land hemispliere, would
fmd, iit the four cardinal points of his true horizon, magnetic, thermal
and geographic positions of peculiar importance, and indicative of inter-
esting mutual relations. The recognition of such relations gives a new
interest to the often noticed resemblance between the isoclinal and iso-
thermal linos, the analogy which I liave myself pointed out between the iso-
gonic and cotidal lines, the paraheliam of the boundary lines and of the
axiy of the westerly isogonic belfc with the boundaries of the correspond-
ing annual isabuormal belt, the isogonic curvatures in or about regions
of isabuormal heat or cold, the different angular relations of the isogonic
lines to the customary paths of hurricanes and storms, and the approxi-
mate perpendicularity of direction and opposition of curvature between
the westerly wind belt and the isogons. All of these features, which
may be satisfactorily explained by the general principles on wdiich storm
laws are based, fnrnish cumulative, if not irresistible, evidence of the de-
pendence of magnetic currents upon the same laws of gravitation, which
tend to restore the equilibrium of air and sea, after tidal or thermal dis-
turbances. The evidence is sustained not only in the general distribution
of the magnetic lines, but also in their particular details, the course of
the isogonic lines, at emry point, being an evident resultant of the com-
bined equilibrating tendencies between land and water, and between
centres of normal and isabuormal heat and cold.

The ocean currents corroborate the gravitation theory of magnet-
ism, perhaps even more strongly than the wind belt. A physical atlas
like Pctermann's, which marks the most rapid portions of the several cur-
rents with the deepest tints, shows their relation to the magnetic and
coast lines very satisfactorily. A comparison of the more aninute details
exltibits additional interesting evidence that the original impulse of all
teirestial currents, atmospheric, magnetic and oceanic, is given by lumin-
ous, thermal or tidal disturbances, that the currents are maintained by
gravity in its continual tendencies to restoi'e the continually dis-
turbed equilibrium, that the magnetic currents are least, while the ocean
currents are most interrupted and modified by land contours, that each
of the more sluggish eurrentsexerts a secondary modifying influence on the
more rapid, that extraordinary variations in thermal or luminous undu-
lations, whether originating at the sun or at the earth, produce " mag-
netic storms," and that, whatever theory may be adopted as to the mode
in which the solar undulations are transmitted, there is no philosophical
necessity for the hy])othesis of any cosniical origin or disturbance of ter-
restrial magnetism other than variations in the amount of light and heat
received and in the directions of gravitating tidal and equilibrating
lines.*

* Tt is so diflicult to m.ike the necessary allowances for the distortions of the ordinary nta.snetie
charts that 1 wuuM rcc()niniend any one, wiio may desire to make the comparisons which 1 have
siu^estcil. to tract the hues on a s^'lohe. A sUUe s^^luhe is esiiecially satisfactory. The data for my

'* Petermanirs and Johnston's riiysical Aliases.'^ In order to Judge of the resiiHanf inflnmcey of
the normal and isabnorinal thermal disturbances, it will he wcdl to m.irk the c^inirt-^ of i:iabuormal
heat and cokUa? well as the points of greatest average heat and cold.

'"--.•■ J— VT'V-^ '"^-"^ rr..rj-ni i-^i ^->ivi ij -- _^^ -xXiIf^ ^^ •'■K-M l^' x^'f -i^i\ '^F ^>.r^V"— ^J ' — ViF'^ ^T "AX '^^^^^ 'i ^^iV^i^"'^ '^'■"^■^^^ "^ ^"^^^^-i^^ ■'-" "J QJ^ ■- .^ -"^ ^-, E-j ^j . _ ^Q j ^ >■ ■^>:^>> ^j ■ ""^ A T. -C;.^a k! ■ >■ > ^ v ^ .

■'■^■ri^.i:-^.^

-•-" ■ ^' - ■- -

rn'r^^iiJ;

-^-^'

Dntton.]

70

[April 7,

Mr. Walker, in his Adams Prize Essay for 1865, p. 208, says: *' it is
wortliy of remark that the portion of the year when the magnetic force is
the greatest, and the direction of the needle most vertical in both hemis-
pheres, coincides with that at which the earth is nearest to the sun and
moves with the greatest velocity in its orbit. This fact fnrnishes another
argument against the theory that these effects are due to tem^peraiure, as
in that case they ought to occur at opj^osite ]}QYio(lfi of the year in the two
Ijemispheres, whcroasinfact they occur at the same period in both." The
writer was doubtless misled by the annual variations in declination and
horizontal force, which ore evidently' dependent upon the relative tem-
perature of the northern and southern hemisplicrcs. But if all the
magnetic effects are primarily due to thermal and gravitating motion, it
is evident tliat the total magnetic force must depend upon the total cur-
rent producing energy of the sun, which is, of course, a maximum when
"the earth is nearest the sun, and moves with the greatest velocity in its

orV)it." The argument whicli was considered conclusive against the the-
ory, is, therefore, wholly in its favor.

Tjte causes of Ilegioiud Elevations and Sabaidences, by Lieut. C. E.

DUTTON.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 7, 1871.)

Lieut. C. E. Dutton, desired to submit certain views, which he had
been led to entertain, respecting tlie causes of regional elevations and
subsidences. He was uuactpiainted with any views on this subject in the
writings of geologists, which seemed to be satisfactory. In rellecting
upon tlie nature of metamorphic rocks, and the probable changes which
they had undergone, he tliought that tlui facets l)rought to light bythe re-
seai-ehes of Bischotf, Daubree, Sorby, Sterry-IInnt and others In that
field, might contain, also, a solution of the unexplained problem of ele-
vations and subsidences. It is now a generally accepted opinion among
writers upon chemical geology, that metamorphic rocks have reached their
present condition, through the combined agencies of heat, pressure, and
water, acting upon sedimentary strata; that snljihur, carbonic acid and
volatile chlorides and iluorides have played highly important parts under
similar conditions, and that soluble earths and metallic salts and vapors
have had no inconsiderable influence upon the totality of changes. That
water especially, under the iniluence of a, moderately high temperature
and great pressure, is capable of changing in a wonderful manner the
structure and arrangement of rocky materials of all kinds, lias been abun-
dantly shown by innumerable synthetical experiments, a great numherof
whicli Juive been summed up by Daubree in an able memoir on the sub-
ject to the French Academy. He has also shown that minerals, \\hich,

I

xxr^ - -tv —

1871. J

71

[Dutton.

t

^

\

under ordinary temperatures to whicli water is subjected, are in no re-
spect changed, may "be completely altered by water confined in strong
vessels and heated to dull redness. Silicates, aluminates and calcai-eous
matters in the amorphous condition, may not only be made crystalline,
but their degrees of hydration may also be permanently altered; and he
also mentions the production of anthraciteby a similar process, froua wood.
Indeed, the changes both of structure and chemical constitution, wdiiclr
maybe produced in this manner, are very great, and extend, in all proba-
bility, to nearly the whole range of mineral matters found in the rocks.

Now, if as is generally believed and accepted, these are the changes in
progress, while rocks are undergoing metamorphism, then, in all i>roba-
bility, the rocks are undergoing at the same time a change intlieir specific
yraTiiy. It is higlily probable, if water is the chief reagent, and if it
constitutes a change both chemical and ])hysical5 that the specific gravity
of the mass, i]ito which it enters, is not the same as it was before such a
change took place. But if we admit this, then we have also admitted
that the volume of those rocks has either increased or diminished. If we
assume it to liave increased, there must take place an expansion, and such
an expansion must necessarily be upward. For, beginning at the lowest
level, at which any such change may be assumed to supervene, the total
weight of the suporincumbent mass is the same as it was before, and
hence there would be no change at that level. Nor could there be lateral
expansion of any importance; all expansion would of necessity be verti-
cally upwards. On the other hand, a decrease of volume would occasion
a subsidence for converse reasons.

If we were to assume a change in the specific gravity of 1000 feet of
rock, to the extent of five jier cent., we could account for a change of
level of 50 feet, and a series of rocks as thick as the carboniferous in this
State, would, with an equal amount of change, give an alteration of level
equal to the average attitude of the North American Continent above
the ocean. It is, of course, impossible to conjecture the depth to which
metamorphic action may extend, though it is undoubtedly very great; at
least eight or ten miles, and there might be no great improbability in
supposing such changes to take place through a large portion of that
depth at the same time.

That the rocks far down below the surface take up under the influence
of great pressure, aided no doubt by heat, large quantities of water, car-
bonic acid, sulphydric acid, and perhaps other electro-negative agents, is
manifest in the materials issuing from volcanoes andfrom thermal springs.
Water and gaseous acids issue in such enormous quantities from volca-
noes, as to constitute a large fraction of the entire mass delivered, indi-
cating that the solid materials have become super-saturated with them,
and the association is resolved as soon as they reach the surface of the
earth, and are relieved of the pressure to which they have been subjected.

The overflow of volcanoes would, it is suggested, be susceptible of a
similar explanation. Let us suppose a stratum ortwo, situated a few miles

■ ' I

Diitlon.j

T2

[April 7, LS71

below thcsiuTucG, bccajiic sofleiied or ligliteued by tlie combined a,<;encies
described, so as to be speciiically lighter tlian tlie average mass of over-
laying rock. If a vent or fissure could be found, such a plastic mass
■would inevitably follow the laws of the equilibrium of fluids, and would
not only rise up into the chasm, but overflow. Putting the problem into
another form, the heavier over-lying mass would sink into the lighter
semi-fluid beneath, and drive it upwards. It is a well known fact, that
tlie lavas are all of small specific gravity. Indeed, were it otherwise,
Lieut. Duttou thought that the overflow of a lofty volcano like ^fcna or
MauuaLoa, would be impossible; for a column of dense material of such
a height, exerting its pressure upon its subtcn-auoan reservoir, would
raise the overlying strata, instead of rising above them. But, in truth,
the superior strata are doubtless heavier, and exert a greater pressure
upon the jeservoir tlian the lava itself.

In a similar manner Lieut. Dutton sought to explain tlie intrusion of
traps, trachytes and basalts. These rocks were probably lighter than
those which originally overlaid them, and forced their way through weak
places to the surface. The traps, basalts and porphyries,— at least such
porphyries as may be called intrusive — though they are unquestionably
altered sediments, arc for tlie most part amorphous, and not crystaUine.
They were evidently altered at a comparatively low temperature, and at
DO very gieat depth. They do not appear to affect the strata into which
they are intrudc-d, and withal, are less highly metamorphie than gneiss or
marble. Water seems to have been the chief agent in their transforma-
tion, and they may liave been forced upward in a soft condition, and upon
being relieved of the prcssiire, parted witli the greater portion of this
water. The traps and basalts also exhibit many planes of cleavage,
witJi very perceptible interstices, and these interstices would seem to be
much wider than could be accounted for by the contraction of cooling.
lie stated that he had often noted this fact, and was decidedly of the
opinion that tJie contraction of these rocks by loss of heat, coukl by no
means account for the entire widtli of such plans of cleavage, and be-
lieved tliat it was in grea,t part due to tlie loi;s of water, which had once
rendered them plastic.

If these views be correct, then we ought to expect th.at volcanic regions
will be confined to those areas which have recently been regions of marked
elevation. And we find this to be the case. In America, the whole extent
of the llocky Mountains and of the Andes, so far as known, was covered
by the ocean at tiie beginning of the Tertiary period. The elevation of
tlie Rocky Jlonntains was probably earlier than that of the Andes, and
sooner completed. Hence, while the formerwas the scene of an unparal-
leled amount of volcanic action during the Pliocene and Miocone, and is
now neaj'ly, or (^uite, quiescent, except in Southern Mexico, the Andes
stilt abound in active volcanoes. The East Indian volcanic regions are
all of Tertiary formation, as are those of the Mediterranean and the
Auvergne.

L

\

i

r

J

v\pnl7, 1S71.]

73

[Copo

I

PRELBimARY REPORT ON THE YERTEBRiVTA DISCOA^ERED

IN THE PORT KENNEDY BONE CAYE.

* By Pkof. E. D. CorE.

{Read defence the American riUlosoplikal Society April 7, 1871.)

Ky friend, Charles M. Whcatley, has already given an account of the
discovery of a fissurc in the Potsdam limestone of Chester Co., Pcnnsyl-
vaniHj containing the remains of numerous animals and plants of the
Postplioccnc period (sec Amcr. Jour. Sci. Arts, 1871, April). Dr. Quicli:,
of Phcenixville, having brouglit to his notice mastodon remains exposed
in quarrying the limestone near Port Kennedy, lie visited the spot, and
determined the existence of the fissure and its contents. In the article
in question he describes it as situated near the line of junction of the
Triassic red sandstone. Its depth is nearly fifty feet, and tlie greatest
width thirty; at the summit or surface of the limestone, its width is
twenty feet. It is filled to a depth of forty feet with the debris of the
neighboring Triassic strata, of a red color ; below this point is a bed of
tough ''black clay eighteen inches in thickness, filled with leaves, stems,
and seed vessels of post-tertiary plants. Scattered through all this mass
of vegetable remains, and also m a red tough clay underneath for six to
eight inches in depth, are found the fossils noticed in this paper."

IMr. Whcatley furnishes a list of the species we had identified up to
the time of writing, viz. ; twenty-seven vcrtebrata, ten coleoptera, and
ten plants. These numbers have been considerably increased up to the
present time, and I look to a much fuller and more complete exposition
of tiic Postpliocene vertebrate fauna, in consequence of a more thorough
examination of the remaining part of the fissure, by my friend, C. M.
"Whe alley.

As regards tlie position of the remains, the article above quoted, pro-
ceeds to state that "the remains of Mylodon, Ursus, and Tapirus have
been mostly obtained from the tough red clay directly under the plant bedj
but the remains of rodents, snakes, tortoises, plants, and insects, are
entirely confined to the plant bed. Neither the bones nor the teeth are
I'oUed or water worn, but all are sharp and well defined." The appear-
ance of the specimens corroborates the above statements. I would add
some exceptions. Thus two of the specimens referred to Arcicola slg-
modus came from the red bed, and one from tlie black ; one Megalonyx
wheatleyi, came from the black bed, the others from the red. Milk teeth
of Mastodon occur in the red bed also. General remarks arc deferred to
the close of the report.

JMf.galonyx, Jefferson.

The remains of species of this genus found in the fissure are more
(Abundant and striking than those of any other. At least fourteen in-
dividuals are represented by the bones and teeth obtained. These belong
probably to five species, as described below, four of them different from

A. V. S. — YOL. XII — J

:_-J^_"^_- ■^/ j_a

7-^T"-»M— vy;"^^ — ->-*-:'i iT-i^itr.-t" ' wi

V VLUi^ '^^-f2^^~^'^ ^- /■ '■^'

\-7--'^ ^^'? i,^:^ ■

■^"^

■'^•^^•'■'\-J^\^L^J^. /l"

^■^ ----- - - ■

Cope]

74

[April 7,

tlio.se hitherto known, three of them of a size equal to that of the 21.
jejfersonii, the others smaller. These species arc only certainly distin-
guishable at present by the teeth, as the other bones are very similar to
those of other species, so far as preserved.

The tcctli consist of cig-htcen canine, and nineteen molar teeth, whose
characters are discussed below. The bones are chiefly those of the feet,
with portions of long bones, and numerous vertebrro. Cranial bones are
in most instances destroyed, for tlK)ugh several complete crania were ex-
humed, the exposure to frosts and thaws -with snow and rain, as they
laid in the piles of materia], disintegrated them. Of limb bones there are
the extremity of a large tibia with cotylus for astragalus, several extrem-
ities of libulai, and some broken heads of femora.

Of the bones of the fore hmb there are three unciforms, two magnums,
and fifteen metacarpals witJi numerous phahmges. The bones of the
hind limb include three astragali, seven cubiods, six scaphoids, and five
incomplete metatarsals. The plialanges of both fore and iiiud feet, which
much resemble each other, number thirty-two, of which nine are ungucal.
Of vertebrae, no cervicals have been found, except an axis without neural
arcli. Caudals are most numerous ; some of the vertebrae have coossihed
epiphyses, oi:hers not, indicating various ages. I have counted twelve
individuals from the teeth, but it is (iuite possible that there are others

represented by some of the bones.

The canine (molar) teeth present a ]-eroarkable variety of forms. As is
known, the section of the crown is oval, on one side concave with a more
or less prominent swelling interrupting it. The differences are seen in
the development and positioj) of the broad rib of ^'hich the swehing is a
section, in the curvature of the shaft, and greater or less obhquity of the
grindhog surface.

Tliere are three tyj>es of form among tlicm as follows :

1st. The shaft curved, the triturating surface oblique, the internal
longitudinal rib prominent, nearer one end of the crown than the other,
dentine of inner side thickened anteriorly ; two specimens.

Sd. Shaft; nearly straight, triturating surface transverse (in its long
direction) ; rib of inner face median, prominent ; dentine of inner side

uiiiforndy thin.

3d. As in the last, but the shaft more compressed, tlierefore the
section narrower, the inner bulging rib being very low and insigjiificant.

The first of these represents a species distinct from those of the other
series ; one nearer the M. jefersonii, and of large size.

lu studying the i->rescnt genus I have been under many obligations to
Dr. Leidy's Memoir on the Extinct Sloth tribe of I^orth America, pub-
lished by the Smithoniau Institute in 1855. In it the species Megalonyx
jeffersonii is established for the first time on a solid foundation, and the
characters, especially of the dentition, clearly ])ointcd out.

f

L

\

Megalonyx loxodo^', Cope, species nova.

The two teeth of the first type may, perhaps, be superior ones; their
curvature accounts for the obliquity of the grinding face in the long

1871.]

75

[Cope.

\

fliroction. This curvature is seen in teeth of M. jeffer so nii (See heidy's
i^Ioiuoir on Extinct Sloth tribe, PI. YI., figs, 4-Gj, which do not appear
to be straiglit in tJie maxillary bone at least, at any time. These teeth
dilfcr from those of M'. jeffersonii in having the posterior nuirgin thinned
out, wldle the anterior is thickened by the near aproximation of the
interior rib. " In the larger of the two the posterior m;ii'giu is sliglitly in-
cnrved, the exterior convexity tlius produced opposing that of the anterior
face and inner rib, as one short side of a romboid does that opposite to it.
The section of the smaller diifers in the sliortness of this intoro-external
face, and is thus rounded snbtriangularly and antero-intenially, as de-
scribed by Leidy in the 3f jelfersonii, and thus different from that seen
in the M. wheatleyi. Tlie external face lias an open longitudinal con-
cavity, The triturating surface in both teeth is a longitudinal groove ;
in the larger, the inner margin is highest anteriorly, the outer highest
posteriorly.

These teeth I suppose to represent a species different fronr the i/.
'wlieaiUiji, and perhaps from the M. jeffersonii also, as none of the sections
given liy Leidy (1. c. Pi. XVI), api)roach their form. The nearest is his
fig. *3, where the section of the bulge is not <.piite central.

'i>

Megalokyx -wheatleyi, Cope.
Species nova.

Represented especially by fourteen canine and sixteen molar teeth, but

probably also by the greater part of the bones above n-ientionccl. The

former are I'eferable to eight indi\idLials, to which perhaps four others

should 1)0 added.

The characters of the species are chiefly visible in the molar teeth,
Avhich in the maxillary bone are acutely trigonal instead of triangular
ovate as in the 31. jeferfioiiii ■ and in the dentary bone, transversely,
sometimes narrowly, pai'allclogrammic, fre(iacntly narrovrcr internally
than externally. In iha 3f. jejferso nil iholsiitor are almost as broad as
long, of equal width, and with the inner or outer margin sliglitly oblique.

In the canine-molars befoj-e mentioned of the second and third types,
M-o have but little or no curvature of the bhaft, no longitudinal grooving
of the outer face, the outer dentinal wall uniforndy higher on the tri-
turating surface than the inner, and the long diameter of this face l)ut
little oblique to the transverse plane of the shaft. As both superior and
inferior molars corresponding in si/e, color, and number to these teeth

have been found, I suppose the latter to have been derived from both
j a w s .

The differences in these teeth are to be seen in the different degrees of
development of tlie dentine layer, and of the bulge on the inner fa.ce, and
of the degree of compression of the shaft. Five of the best preserved ex-
hibit ti\e thickness of the external layer continued j-ound the extremities
of the grinding surface, and then rather abiuptly contracting wedge like,
iiito the thin layer of the interior face. In two other teetli this con-
traction takes i^lace at the external curves, and is less in degree, the inner

Cope]

76

April 7,

. ^.

s

^

s

S

■'T

(

&

1

^

S fz-

S
p
^

I

F

\

1871.]

7

[Cope

\

\

\

layer being more uuiforiii. In two teeth tlic dentine of the "bulge of the
inner face is very nearly as thick as that of the outer (F. -4). As regards
the fonn, in the last mentioned tooth the bulge is well developed (as in
Leidy's PL XVI. fig. 1), and tlie shaft is not compressed. In the two
previously mentioned, the shaft is short and the bulge very low and
bounded by two shallow grooves; in one (F. 0) (which is accompanied
by the posterior molars), it has a shallow median groove. In tlie five
canine molars first named we have every degree of compression. In one
(F. 3) the shaft is stout, and the bulge larger than in any other, about as
in Leidy's PL XVI. fig. 2 ; in a second (F. 5) the shaft is similar, with
low bulge, like iig. 7. 1. c. In the third (F. 7) from a large individual,
there is'niorc compression, and the bulge is very low ; the last two are
similar, but smaller; they belong apparently to opposite sides of the
same animal (F.8). These are like the tooth figured and described by Dr.
Loidy as that of Jlci/ulon^j/x dimmilis.

laminclJDcd to refer the teeth of these types to one species, a view
couiinued by a study of the molars. They are all stained yellowish or
light rust color except one, which is black, and which is associated with
three i>osterior molars of similar color and corresponding size. The re-
maining posterior molars are of the color of the other canine molars, and
no doubt belong to the same individuals in pai't, but none can be associ-
ated with the same certainty as the black specimens. On the light colored
posterior molars I propose to establish i\i<i Me jalonyx loheaiUyi, since I
should scarcely distingaish it from 3LMersonu, or M. dissimilis by the
canine-molars alone. There can be no question that the forms of these
teeth, characteristic of the two supposed species, graduate into each other ;
the characters derived from the development of the interior enamel plate,
may be distinctive, but in that case there is at least one other undesciibed
species in the series I have explained above. M. dissimilis it appears to
mc must repose on the posterior upper molar, wliich Leidy shows to be
transversly oval and not triangular in section. That tooth is as triangular
in M. wlieatleyi as in M. jeffe/rsonii.

Prom tlie preceding, it is probable that the most allied species of
Merjolonyx, cannot be exactly defined by the characters of their canine
molar teeth, though, as in many species of ]\Iammalia, they may be in-
dicated by the extreme forms of those teeth, the range of variation over-
lapping.

The suijcnor-molars (la) belong to at least three (perhaps four) in-
dividuals. They are nearly straight trilateral prisms, so worn that the
inner anterior ano;le is the most elevated. The anterior dentinal plane is
slightly convex, the posterior concave to a less degree The exterior
angle is much less obtuse than in M. jeffersomi, that enclosed by the
dentine bein<^ prolonged and very narrow. There is a notable difference

'Sterior molars of the sunerior series, nrescr

po

pe

belongs to the individual stained black. Both are slightly bowed pos-
teriorly, and both have a snbtriangular section, the apex directed inwards.

F

Cox^c]

78

[April 7,

I ;l

I
' I

'III

Hi

: r

In the light colored specunen the outer face is wide and nearly plane, the
anterior very slii^htly convex, and tlie posterior concave, making an open
longitudinal gi'oove ; the external angle is obtu;-e. In the black speci-
men tiie inner face is narrower, the anterior more distinctly convex, and
the posterior convex also, rounding oft' to the more ohtuse external angle.
Both these teeth, are w^orn obliquely as in 31. jeffersonii.

The wearing of the median molars is transverse to the axis of the shaft
anteriorly, oblique to it or descending inwards, posteriorly. TJie wearing
in the long axis of the jaw bone, is obliquely forw\ards on the posteiior
dentinal wall, and divided on the anterior, one lialf sloi)ing forwards and
the other backwards, the slopes separated by a sharp ridge of the dentine.

A single tooth, which by its form is excluded from a pla.ce in the man-
dible, and by the character of the wearing of its crown, can bo none other
than the second molar, or hrst of the regular scries. Its form is very
different from tliat of the same tooth in M.jeffersonii, but is appropriate
to the modification described below as characteristic of the inferior
molars of ilf. v/'/avi/a'i^'i. There is no anterior wxar on the anterior den-
tinal jjlate, indicating the absence of any tooth anterior to it in the infe-
rior jaw; tliis plate is ranch higljer than the posterior, "which has two
worn surfaces, the antei-ior horizontal, the posterior oblique. The middle
of the crown is concave, and the concavity is carried across the dentine
of one end. The tooth is in section a transverse parallelogram with
the oilier short side oblique, instead of parallel to the inner. Anterior
face slightly concave, posterior slightly convex.

The characters of the inferior molars are established by three posterior
in place in the fragments of jaw held together by the matrix of red sand
and clay. That they might be the superior series of anotlier species is
suggested by the subtriangular outline of two of them, and tlie jaw is so
fragmentary that it is not sufficient to decide the case. The following
points, however, are conclusive. Tf they were superior, the terminal
teeth mast be either the second or lifth molars, according to the relation
to front or back in which tliey are viewed. That neither can occupy
this place is proven by the following description:

The anterior is a rather narrow transverse parallelogram, with the
sides and angles rounded. The posterior dentinal plate is worn trans-
versely, the opposite one is oblique, descending to one side. The form is
worn obliquely aw^ay from the centre of the crown, the latter is plane.
The next tooth is a parallelogram narrowed tOM-ards one end, which is
rounded obliquely to the other sides ; it is narrower than the last, and
the dentinal plates are worn in exactly the same way. The last tooth is
much wider than the others, and has a srd)triangular outline, the narrow
end very wide and obtuse, and on the same side as the narrowed end of
the one in front of it. The oiitline is worn in the same manner, except

that the angle at one end of the base of the triangle is, perhaps, more
elevated.

(1 .) Neither of the extrcmital teeth have the oblique face of the pos-

r

L

\

1871.3

79

[Cop

terior one of the known species of Megalonyx, nor the reduced si/e, so
that it remains to ascertain Avbethcr either of them is the first superior
molar. (3.) 'F ho larger is evidently not so, hecause it has an obliquely-
worn distal face, indicating the existence of another tooth beyond it in
the opposite jaw. (3.) The opposite one is not the anterior molar, be-
cause (a) its anterior dentinal face is worn horizontally, not obliquely
baclvward, indicating an ovcrlapphig tooth ; (b) because the oblique wear
of tlie dentine would, on the supposition that it is the first, bo thrown
on the posterior instead of the anterior faces of the other molars ; (c) and
because its form is narrower than the otlier teeth, instead of wider as

in other species.

Confirmatory of this conclusion is the fact tliat no palate can be dis-
covered among the fragments where it should be, were these teetb max-
illaries. The (luestiou as to the relation of ends is settled by the fact
that the plane of the crowns rises to the narrower, which would thus be
a^nterior. Also the large tooth has the olilique surface for the last supe-
rior molar, which the anterior lias not. The fragments of the jaw indi-
cate the same thing, rising (towards the coronoid process) at the large
tooth and falling at the narrower. The latter, then, for the above rea-
sons, I assume to be the anterior.

Length of three juxtaposed crowns 0.053

" anterior crown, inner end .'. . . .013

*' '* outer end 013

"Width '' '' 02

Length of last " outer end 014

'^ '' '• inner end 0016

Width '' '' 03

Lenc^th of shaft first tooth 054

There are five isolated molars of the same type as tlie above. Three
of these arc evidently anterior or second inferior molars, two of the left
side and one of the right. Their section is suboval, and all the details,
size, &c., are as above described. Two others are like tlie second (or
third) inferior molars. One of these is peculiar in being a little concave
on the anterior face, the inner extremity very obli(iue, the other is more

oval.

The question as to the 8i)cclfic relatione of these inferior molars may be
stated as follows. Their large size ])recludes the probability of their be-
longing to either 31. toriulusoi' 31. s-phe-nodon. They appear to beh:tng to
one species, without doubt. The sujjerior molars also belong to one
species, and as no other species is represented in any thing like
the same abundance, it is reasonable to suppose that these, with the most
abundant of canine molars, belong to the same form of Megalonyx. The
' canine molars differ from those of 31. loxodon, and the posterior upper
molars from those of 31. dissimUis. The disproportion between the sizes
of the second and last inferior molars, with the narrow oval and triangu-

V

4

liiiNli

Cope-j

80

[April 7,

lar forms of the same, separates the animal from the M. jejj'ersonn. The
only known molar of M. 'Dalidus, Leidy, is like nothing fonnd in the
present species, and M. rodens and Jf. meridionalis each, have their
peculiar features. I therefore call the present animal M. tchcailei/i.

I ii
I . I

Another molar, perhaps the third inferior of the three, is lai-ger, and
appears to helong to another individual ; it is a little wider inwardly,
and resenihles Leidy's fig, 13 of PI. XVI. , except in its narrower angle
and perfect symmetry. It may helong to M. loheaUei/l, but the outer
angle is regularly rounded ; it may be M. S2)henodo}i, It difrevs from
those of M.jefersonii as the M. lolieatUyi, in the greater extension in a
transverse direction, and in the concavity of one of the long sides. The
enclosed area of osteodentine is in section a frustrum of a narrow
triangle, instead of rounded parallelogrammic as in M. jeffersonii.

I

\

3Ieasiirements of teeth.

M.

Long diameter, (Fig. 5) hglit cold, canine molar 0.031G

Short

ii

u

Long

of (Fig. 3)

ci

a

Short

a

a

i.i

Long

of (Fig. G)

bljick

u

CI. ,-,,.-[-

U

a

u

.018
.0325
.019
.035

.017

; ■:':

/

^

1871.] ^■'- [Cope.

Long aianietcr of (Fig. G) black super, molar 021

Short " ** '' *' 015

Long " (Fig. 9) light, *' 0315

Short '' " " '' ■•■-. .OloS

Total length '' *' .003

Long diameter 4 snper. molar of (Fig. G) 017

Short '' " '' Oil

Long *' '' (Fig. 9) 018

Short '' '' '' 0130

Long " inferior molar (light) 023o

Short *' " " 015

Length " 2d " (loose) 0314

AVidth " " 015

There are vertebro!- of both adult and young animals. An axis is much
like to that described by Leidy in Mcgalonyx jeffersunii. The centrum is
much depressed, witli a strong inferior keel. Tlie articular faces of the
lateral abutments and of the odontoid process are coutiiinous. This pro-
cess is short and conic, and is a continuation of a projection of the cen-
trum, which is notched on each side above, at its anterior limit, for the
annular ligament. A more posteiior cervical, with codssihed epiphyses, is
much less depressed, and is about as broad as long. A caudal, with co-
ossificd epiphyses, has subround articular extremities, and is remarkable
for the extent of the chevron articulation of both ends of the inferior
aspect. These are connected by a lateral ridge which encloses a deep
fossa.

Measurements of Yertehroi.

M.

Length axis ■ ■ 0.089

Greatest width *^^^

" neural canal 035

Width centrum behind. .044

Depth - ^■'■028

Length poster, cervical 054

"V^iJth " articular face 05G5

Depth '' " ^l

Lengh caudal ^^'^

"Width ' ' articular face 057

Depth " " ; ■• -^'^

" " young, larger animal, with separate epiphyses 083

'^ articular face, dorsal of youn^ 05

Width " " ^^l^

Length centrum of " 04o5

The curpals do not present marked difference when compared with
those fu-ured by Leitly under 3/. jeffersomL Among the tarsals, one as-
tragalus is exactly like that of the latter species ; another is deeper and
shorter, viewed from the inner side, with vertical truncation below in

A. r. S. — VOL. XII— K

' I

.

<^0Pe.] O^ [April 7,

front, and much deeper superior ligamentous pit. Of the scaplioids, two
probably of tlie same animal, are deeper posteriorly, and with the convex
part of the superior articular face rounded ; four others arc Hatter, two
with the articular face above rounded, and two subconical. The cuboids
differ in the degrees of depression of form. Two are more depressed,
three larger less so, and one still less.

The metacarpcds arc all present, and belong to several animals. There
arc four of the first, which appear to have belonged to two species.
Three exhibit the articular extremity as very oblique to the superior
plane of the bone, and including a groove between it and the surface of
attachment to Lite 3d metacarpal. The inferior surface exhibits a
swollen knob, and a pit behind it. The fourth is nearly plane above and
below, with the articular ginglymus at right angles to bolli. and articula-
tion to second metatarsal also at right angles to them. Ko gi'oovc be-
tween these surfaces, but a regular concavity. Outer extremity not pro-
jecting as in the lirst. The other metatarsals have the form and propor-
tions already described by Leidy.

Length of Metatarsus I - 045

Width " posteriorly 080

Length " II, 059

Depth '^ '^ .053

Length '* III, _ . .0045

Depth '* " 057

Length *' IV, .104

Depth '' " 05

The phalanges are like those figured and described as belonging to the
^^- jcffersonii. Many of them are the proximal ones of greatly shortened
proportions, characteristic of the sloths. The penultimate are of various
sizes, an average one measures as follows:

M.
T^ength. 0.071

Depth behind 045

Width '* 037

But the following measurements of a proximal phalange indicate an
immensely large example.

M.

T^cngth 0.031

Depth behind 0(;3

Width " ".'.'.'.'..,.. WW !o53

The ungueal phalanges are compressed and curved, with obtuse rounded
superior margin. Only one exhibits a tendency to the acute superior
margin characteristic of those typical of M. jejj^ei-sonii, thougli claws of
both kinds have been ascribed to the latter. The inl'erior ])lane is
gently convex. The insertion for ilexor tendon is expanded laterally

4

)

\

\

1S7L] ^d [Cope.

over the origin of the nutritious foramen on each side, into a slielf : gen-

r

era! form longitudinal oval. The superior direction of the median radius
of the cotylus for the hist phalange, shows that the claws were always
flexed to some degree.

Fragments of many long bones, including many condyles, accompanied
the above, but in the hick of certainty as to their proper reference, are
not described.

This species is dedicated to Charles j\[. Wheatley, of Phtonixville, to
whom Natural Science in the "United States is under many obligations.
The expense and much labor requisite for the proper recovery and elucida-
tion of the remjiins contained in the cave are entirely due to his liberality
and exertions. Similar devotion to Science has preserved to us the finest
series of fossils of the triassic period of the Northern States in exist-
ence, and the finest collection of fresh water shells in America.

Megalonyx dissimilis, Leidy.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1852, 117. Sloth tribe N. A., 45, PL xiv.,

figs. 4 — 8, xvi., 8 and 15.

Probably represented by three canine molars, which belong to at least
two individuals. They have been described under head of the pre-
ceding species (see 1 a c). The canine molars are the only ones which
can be compared with Leidy's figures and descriptions, with which they
agree closely.

3fcasuTeme}its of iceih.

M.

Long diaui. canine molar, larger individual of 1 a c. . 0.0;36

Short ^' '' ■ " . '' 0158

Long '' . " smaller ''' 033

Short " '' •' '' .014

Length shaft '* '* « 079'

This species is evidently about the size of the M. ulieatlcyi and M,
jejfcrsonii.

Megalonyx sphenodon, Cope.

This species is the smallest of the genus yet known from North Amer-
ica. It is indicated certainly by the canine-molars of opposite sides of

one individual only.

These teetli arc Hat and a little curved. A principal peculiarity con-
sists in the regular increase in their diameter, from the apex to the base,
in both the longitudinal and the transverse directions. The long diame-
ter of tlie triturating suiface is four-fifths that of the base where broken
off. The dentinal layer is thick externally ; it contracts after turning,
and the layer of the inner aspect is uniformally thin, but less so thnn in
M. dissimilis. The inner bnlge is well marked, and is a httle nearer the
anterior margin than the posterior; the latter is the thicker. The tritur-
ating surface is slightly oblique in the long direction, as in the two species

F ^ — •

!7 M

" J

. ■■ I

1 1 . ,

Copc.j ^~i [April?,

preceding this, and concave transversely ; tlic inner dentinal plate being
worn inucb lower than the outer. Exterior face of tooth regularly and
gently convex. i

Length of fragment of tooth 0.044

Long diameter at grinding face 025

" " " base fragment " 0275

Short " " *' " 0148

'• " " grinding face 0125

The question has naturally arisen, whether this tooth has not belong-
ed to a young animal of 3f. loheaUeyi or M.jeffersoniL Its small size and
subconic form woidd suggest this view. Teeth of the monophyodont
type, generally possess the character of those of the successional type, in
being protruded of the full sizc^ and not increasing in diameter with age.
Exceptions, however, occur in some liodeiiUa, as the beaver. It has
however, never been seen among the numerous teeth of sloths, which
have been studied by authors, while a genus allied to J^Jijhnlon, Siilienodoii
of Lund, presents this character at maturity. Further, the most ex-
panded portion of these teeth i>resents considerably smaller dimensions
than the smallest of the M.jeffersonil, ligurcd by Lcidy ; the diameter of
the triturating surface is only .Q(j of that of the same, (Leidy, 1. c. xvi,

fig. .G).

In the moderate development of the inner bulge, these teeth are like
some of those of M. xolieatUyi.

Mp:galonyx TOiiTULUS, Cope, sp. nov.
Established on two corresponding canine-molars of opposite sides of a
sloth, found in association with the preceding. These teeth are more dis-

/

\

//

iZa.

tinctly curved than in the three species preceding, but are more as in M.jcf-
feTwnii and M. loxodon. Its shaft possesses a peculiarity of the latter,
-which is not seen in M. icheaiUyi, M. dissimilis and M. spTtenodon^ i. e., it

\

t

1871.] . ^'^ [Cope.

is twisted, so that tho A'cvtical plate of tlie tritiirating surface is quite
obli(iue to that of the basal portions of the shaft.

The triturating surface is, in its long diameter, transverse to the mar-
gins of the tooth adjacent; the short diameter is very oblique. The
bulge is well marked, and in the specimens a little anterior to the middle.
The inner layer of dentine is thickest anteriorly, where it is but a little
narrower than the thick external layer, but it is nowhere very thin.
The outer face is concave, a feature not seen in the three species above
mentioned, and not exhibited by any of tho sections of the teeth of Jf
j effer so Jiii gixoii hy Lcidy, 1. c.

Length of fragment of tooth 0.043

Long diametci- grinding surface 0283

Short " " ** ^^-i5

These dimensions show that the Mefjalony.c (orHiUis is not larger than
M. S2)he}iod''n, pei-haps not so large, as the dian)eters of the apices of
their teeth are identical, Avhile that of the base is equal to the apex in
the former, greater in the latter. The concavity of the outer face, and
disposition of the dentine, are entirely different from that seen in M.
and sphenodon- other species, and more as in M, j^'fersonii and M. loxodon.

For the better discrimination of these species, the following synoptic
table of dental characters is added.

A Ganhic-molars, uuich curved, of equal diameter.
Large, bulge median ; grinding surface oblique. M. jeffevsonn.

Large, bulge anterior ; grinding suiTace a groove. M. io-vodon-.

Small, concave externally. ^^- iortulus,

B Canine-molars little curved, of uniform diameter.
Molars triangular, canine-molars less compressed, large. If. wheatleyi.
Last molar oval, canine-molars more compressed, large. jL dlssimilis.

C Canino-molars little curved, diameter contracting to the apex.
Bu'ii-c median, dentine thin within, small. M. sphenodoii.

Myi,odo^', Owen.

IMylodo^^ ? iiaela::^!, Owen.

The remains representing this genus are not sufficiently characteristic
to enable me to determine the species with certainty. They consist of two
imperfect ungueal phalanges, and the distal extremity of the tibia. The
former indicate a very large animal ; they are stout, convex above, , -with
lateral ridge and three basal plates. The Jlexor insertion is broad and
flat, the foTa,uuna web developed. In the sccoiul i-)ha.lange the middle
inferior plane is represented by an obtuse angle. Tlie tibia presents the
excavation for the astragalus, as in J/. o'obvsiui>0\N,-- but is narrower
or with less anteroposterior diameter than in that species.

*ScG Owen on Myloilon. V\. xk fig, 4.

/

Measurements.

M.
Long diameter end of tibia 0.135

f^lioi'ti *' ^' *' (transversely) " .08

Vertical diameter ungueal phalange at nutritions foramina 053

Transverse *' " " " **.... 037

These cla\ys arc similar to those of the M. liarlani which have been
discovered.

SciuRUS, Linn.

SciUKus CALYciNus. Cope.
Sj^ecics nova.

Establishcdon two imperfect rami of tlio nnder jaw, with the incisor
and first, second and tliird inferior mohirs in situ. The size approxi-
mates it to the 8. Jiudsonius, and exceeds that of tlie jS. panoUiin, The
forms of the ramus so far as visible, is not unhke that seen in the same
sqnirrcl. The characters which distinguish it from S. hmUonius, are
chieily to be seen in the molar teeth, especially the anterior. The crowns
of„ ail are deeply cupped, and the tritruattng surfaces form anterior and
posterior narrow bounding bands, which widcu outwartily. The margin
of the tooth is elevated and entire, except externrdly, where the two
■usual low cusps are sepai-ated by a deep notch. In the S. limUonius

the interior and exterior margins are both cmargiiiate, each notch sup-
porting a median cusp, thus forming three on each side. The anterior
molar exhibits this character still more strongly. Its crown is a cup as
wide as long, with Jiigh uninterrupted margin, except on the outer side,
whore it is deeply notched, It has but two roots. In S, nuihioiuKs this
tooth has three i-oots, is longer than wide, and has three inarginal cusps
on the inner and outer sides of the crown.

Length of three crowns m. 0048 ; length exsei'ted portion of inferior
incisor m. 007 ; transverse diameter do. at point of issue m. 0023.

From the extent of the worn surfaces of the molars, tlic animal de-
sciibcd is adult. The second ramus is of the same size; the dental
series is complete, and the teeth arc worn so as to present a dentinal area
surrounded by a thin margin of enamel. The outlines of the teeth are
like those of the first sjtecimen.

As compared with S. panoUtis, the species is larger, and differs in the
form of the m. 1, as much as in the case of 8. hudsonius.

Jaculus, Wagler.

Jaculus ? HtiusoNiup, Zimm.

One ramus mandibuli with incisor and second molar preserved. The

latter nearly resembles the figure in T. Cuvier's Dents dcs Mammifcrs,

and the ramus is about the size of that of the existing jumping mouse.

Nevertheless, in lack of specimens of the cranium of the latter, I am

unable to determine its spccificrclations, now first found in the Postplio-
cene.

I

1871.]

87

[Cope.

\

Hespehomys, "Waterhouse.

A ramus with first and .secoiul molars and incisor, agreeing in details
of strncture, with the group witli "\vhich our recent 11. leucoptis is type,
and of the size of tliat sx^ecies, not certainly referable to the latter,

■without further comparison.

AiiA'icoLA, Lacep.

1-iemains of species of the genus are numerous in all the cave forma-
tions of the United States which I liave examined. Those obtained by
my friend, C. M. Wheatley, are referable to three sections of the genus,
one of them the group Pitymys, as defined by Prof. Baird,f the others
new; one intermediate between Arvicola and Pitymys, and third an ex-
aggeration of the peculiarities of the last. They arc defined as follows,
the character of !he sub-genus Arvicola being added for comparison.

Armcola, Lac. Anterior lower molar triaiigles 1 ^ y, 1 three lobed ;
nud<lle lower, 1 | ; middle upper, 1 f .

A. iHparia, Ord.-

Tsodelta, Cope. Anter. inf. molar, 1 J ; 1 three lobed ; 2d inf. mol. 1 I.

A. speothen, Cope.

Pityvtys, McMurtrie. Ant. inf. mol. 1 p, lobed ; 2d inf. mol. 1 } 1.

A. pineioruni, Lee. A, sigmoduSj Cope. A. dUlcUa, Cope. .4. ictra-
delta, Cope.

Anaptogonia, Cojie. Ant. inf. mol. 1 i, 1 several lobed, the triangles
all connected medially, the posterior nearly enclosed.

A. hiatidens, Cope. ^

The third group is rcj^resented by the greatest number of individuals
and species.

Akyicola SPEOTHEX, Cope.

Sp. nov.

This species is represented by the entire dentition of the left ramus
mandibuli, with a few fragments of the adjacent bone. As already ■
pointed out, its characters entitle it to rank as a distinct section of the
genus. Thus the triangles of the inner side of the anterior inferior mo-
lar are one less than in any species of the section Arvicola. The anterior
loop presents two well marked angular basal areas, while its terminal
portion is regularly rounded. The accompanying outline will give a good

tl iKivo ili^pendod on Prof. Baird'a well known -work in studying tliis genus.

^AiiTTCOT.A inrATJiA, Ord.

Bair.i.U. S. Pac. J!. Ji. turv , viii.522.

This species has not yet been found in the Port Kenne-iy cave, and I introduce It for the purpose
of recording its occurrence in the cave breccia, Wythe Co.. Virginia, -whose contents T examined
and drsrribed in Proc. Am. I'hii. Soc„ 1S69, 17L. It is represented by a left ramus mandibuli, en-
tire except in the angle and condyle, and with complete dentition. Tlie .-^izc and proportions are
idonticalwitii those of tlie existing species, as arc also the triangles and form of terminaltrefoil
lobe of tlie anterior inferior molars. There is no difference to be observed between the third infe-
rior molar when compared wilh iliat of A. riparia from Pennsylvania, Init the anterior alternate
trian!,'lPSoftlie second, arc not isolated, the reentrant inflection of the external enamel plate not
reaching the internal, as in the recent animal.

X

Cope]

88

[April 7,

idea of its form. That tliis is not one of the species of Piiymys, in
which the "basal lobe of tlio anterior trefoil has been cut oif by unusual
inilexion of the enamel angle, is demonstrated by the structure of the
second inolaTj which is precisely that of ij\)\Q,'A\ Arvicola, all the triangles
from tlie posterior being isolated and alternating, producing the formula,

r

1 10. The third molar has the usual formuUij 1-1-1, the posterior two
lobes being crescentic, the anterior trapezoid.

Measurements,

Length grinding surface inferior molars, (ISTo. 1) . . . 0.00G8

** '* " 1st " '■ " 003

" fang and crown " " '* " -005

The structure of the molar triangles, i. e., their acnteness and thinness
of enamel, induces me to describe here, without any certainty of refer-
ence, the superior molar teeth of one individual found near the same time.
The formulae of tlie superior molars are (1) 1 \, (2) 1 i, (8) ? this, so far
as known, identical with that of A. didclta. In another specimen repre-
sented by incisor and sup. m. 1., the former has an oblique antero-exter-
nal face, with narrow truncate outerface; enamel not striate, emai'ginate
at the cutting edge. In A. didelta, (fossil, below), tlic antero-external
face is more oblique, and without defined external plane ; the end is not
emargiiiate (in one specimen). This tooth appears to be relatively small-
er and weaker in the ?A. S'peoilbcn.

Length fang and crown, l.st superior molar (No. 3) 004

Width enamelled face incisor '* *' COl

AnVICOLA TETIIADELTA, CopC.

Sp. nov.

liepresented by a portion of the cranium, which embraces the 2d and 3d
superior molars, and parts of the m. 1, and incisor. The formula of the

r

\

1

' i-l

two molars perfectly preserved is 1 J,, 1 |. The terminal triangles are as
well developed inside as outside ; the others are rather small and obtusely
angnlatcd. Tliose of the m. 8, arc entirely separated, and the last is not
followed by a loop, but is completely enclosed behind by the vertical
enamel i)late, which bounds the corresponding triangle in tlie m. 2. This
is a character which distinguishes this species from any other of the

I
I
I ■

I I

1871.]

89

[Cope.

genus Arvicola wliicli has been described from ISTortli America, of which
the corresponding tooth is known. The last triangle is slightly angulate -

ill posterior outline.

M.

Length grinding face of ni. sup. 3 and 3 0.0037

It is only necessary to compare this species with the A. s'peotJien and
--1. mvohita, in which, nnfortunatelyj the coi-responding tooth is unknown.
Its small and obtuse triangles distinguish it from the former. As reduc-
tion of the terminal loop of the m. inf. 1 is characteristic of the latter,
the present tooth might be suspected to belong to it, but there is a real
increase in the number of triangles over that of the most nearly allied
species. A. didelta, and of the section Pltymys, to Avhich it belongs,
pointing most to the sections Isadella or Arvicola. Size, .25 less than A.
speothen.

Akvicola didelta, Cope.
Species nova.

Represented by the mandibular rami of five, and sui^erior dentition of
probably three individuals. One imperfect cranium contains the denti-
tion of botli jaws, thus fixing the relations of fragmentary specimens,
especially in the more important relation of the anterior, inferior and
posterior superior molars. The eliaracters of these show that it is allied
to the A. pinelory/iti. The accompanying cuts ilhistrate the form of the
first inferior molar tooth. The ridges are four internal and three exter-
nal. The second molar exhibits the formula 1 J 1, the anterior area with
an approach to division into two triangles, alternating. This peculiarity
is not seen in Prof. Baird's ilgure of A.pinelonu/i, 1. c. liv. 1719, nor does
the latter represent the loops of the last molar, as exhibited by our speci-
mens. In the figure they are oval, in our specimens angulate cresccntic.
xis the figure does not agree with the description, I do not rely on it for
these details.

A more important difference is seen in the structure of the superior
third molar, which Baird describes and figures as having but three isola-
ted areas, the lateral angles being sub-opposite and continent medially.
In A. dideUa, there is an internal and an external triangle, each entirely
Isolated, besides the anterior and the posterior loops. The last differs a
little in its developments ; in one it is broad heart-shaped, the apex pos-
terior ; in another elongate, tlie sides a little concave ; in a third, more
elongate and concave. The formula of triangles of both series then is:
Sup. 1, If. 2, 11 3, i;i. Infer. 1, IJl. 2, Ijl. 3, ?

Prof. Baird does not describe the triangles of the posterior superior
molars in the Arvicola aasiora as isolated, though it might be inferred
from his language. Ilis figure, however, resembles that of the A. pine-
lonnn: (See Baird, U. S. Pac. P. P. Surveys, viii, 539.)

Arvicola involuta, Cope.

Species nova.

Established on a nearly complete ramus mandibuli, wuth dentition per-
fectly preserved, It is nearly allied to the A. pinetoruin, differing prin

A. r. S. — VOL. XII — L

■is

If!

I

Cope]

90

April 7,

cipally in the form of the anterior lower molar ; (sec accompanying cut).
The anterior lobe of this tooth is much shortened and crescentic, the in-
ner horn of the crescent being the apex of aridge of the tooth. Thus there
are live internal and three external ridges to the tooth. Triangles of
inferior series (1) 1|-1 three lobed ; (2) l^l ; (3) 1, I, 1. The anterior loop
of tlie second molar is contracted, outlining two triangles . the lobes of
the third are angular sub-crescentic, the anterior trapezoid. This molar
ditfers distinctly in structure from that of the next species, q. v. The
A. invohUa is nearer the A. pinetoriim, and is of the same size.

Akyioola sigmodtjs, Cope.
Species nova.

This species belongs to the same group (as characterized by dentition),
as the last two, and is of about the same size, viz: about that of our com-
mon A. rPparia. It is represented by three imperfect mandibular rami,
two witli dentition complete, the other with the posterior molar only
wanting. Its characters arc near those of A. austera, Lcc, as pointed
out by Prof. Baird. It differs froin the A. dklelta and A. iiivohUa of
the present paper, in the five lobed anterior loops of the ilrst inferior mo-
lar. The loop has, therefore, besides the two basal unenclosed triangles,
a smaller projecting angle on each side, and the terminal slightly angu-
lated lobe. In the most typical specimenj the median angles of this lobe
arc as prominent (fig. a) as the basal, or the triangles, though the loop of
the lobe is not angulated at the end.

There are, thus, live internal and four external ridges of the tooth.
The triangles are as usual Ijl, 5 lobed, fS) l)!, (o), 1, 1, 1. The ante-
rior loop of the second is contracted as in the two preceding species.
The third is quite different from that described under the head of ^1. in-
■volnta, and that figured by Baird for A. 'pinetovum. Thus, its tliree loops
are chiefly extended inwardly, their outer angles projecting very little
beyond the point of junction ; they form a w or sigma-shaped grinding
surface, whence the name of the species. Prof. Baird's figure of A, cms-
tcra represents the first inferior molar of this species exactly, but is very
diflerent in form of the last, which is like that of the A. innohUcL Should
however, the character as here described in this tooth of A. signhodus,'bo
found to occur in the A, aiisiera, the former name will become a synonynie
of tlie latter.

Measurements.

M.

Length grinding surface infer, molars, (l^o. 1.) O.OOGj

'* ' '' '* 1st " '^ '' 003

" fang and crown " " " 004

Width inferior incisor 0015

The dental series of the more typical specimen, whose m. 1 is outlhicd
in fig. a, is smaller and relatively a little narrower than the others.

Tlie suj>posed sui:)erior maxillary dentition is represented by both series,
that of the left side lacking the first molar, with the i>alatine surface and

1871.]

91

[Cope

s

S

\

one u])per incisor. The lobe formula is If, IJ, l,i 1 three lobed. The lobe
of the posterior molar is quite elongate, and divaricates into two angles
anteriorly, the external of which is almost isolated, almost giving the form-
ula for the tooth IJ 1. The teeth of both sides are exactly alike. The near
approach to isolation of this external angle is due to the deep inlloction
of the posterior inner groove, and very ];!ear approach to a corresponding
incurvature of the lobe. This specimen is referred to the A. sifjuiodus by
the analogy to the relation between superior and inferior molars seen in
A. didelia. In the latter the terminal loop of tlie inferior m. 1 is more
simple and the loop of supei'ior m. 3, agrees with it in its simplicity, hav-
ing nearly the same form. The increased complexity of the anteiior loop
of the inferior m. 1 in A. sifpnodus is shared by the m. 3 sup. here de-
scribed, though not in exactly tlie same manner. I refer it, therefore, to
this species with a reservation.

M.
Length of dental series 0.007

Width between middle of m. in. 2 005

'' incisor tooth in front 0015

Length from m. 3 to incisive foramen .0049

Akvicola ^IATIDE^^s, Cope.
Species nova.

Represented by several molar teeth. These are several times as laroro

fc'

as the teeth occupying the same position in any of the species ah-eady
mentioned in this essay, and suggest the genus Fiber. The distinctive
features of the latter arc the compressed oar^ike tail, with rooted molars,
and it is evident that the relationship of this species is not to it. Perhaps
it is neither an Amcola nor a Fiber, since it diifcrs in the structure of the
teeth from the known species of both. None of the triangles are isolated,
but are connected by a narrow strip of dentine, which is narrow posteriorly
but widens anteriorly until it opens out into the terminal loop. Thus
the sectional name Aiuvpiogonia may be found ultimately applicable to a
separate genus. The separation of the enamel folds merely carries to the

liighest degree that which is seen in the anterior part of the tooth of ^.
^Witiod'us.

I

I I

Cope-]

92

[April 7,

In tlio inferior m. 1, tlie triangles which do not open on one ^ide to the
anterior loop arc 1 j, then one on each wide, and the short wide terminal loop
whichis bilobed or emarginatc in the middle of tlie end. The ridges, which
are very prominent and acute, are, therefore^ J ; at the extremity there arc
two short ones, between which a third and more prominent one rises a little
below the grinding surface. A little more attrition would give the distal
loop a trilobate outline, and a little more, an acuminate one, from the
loss of the lateral angles ; finally the median ridge disappears also. In
its present state one of the terminal lobes is almost external, mnking the
ridges §.

Measurements. M.

Length grinding surface 0.005

AVidth '' 0024

Length fang and crown , . 0078

The accompanying cut of twice natural size explains the above remarks.

Two opposite molars held in natural relation by the matrix, resemble
the above in structure and size so closely as to leave little doubt that they
belong to the same species. "Whether they should bo referred to the
superior or inferior series is uncertain, though analogy with the llypu-
dmtcs gafperi would suggest the latter. Tliey rex^resent the right and
left second molars, and the triangular areas if isolated, would bo IJ, not
one of them, however, is isolated, the dentine being continuous round the
entering angles of enamel. The failure of these angles to reach tlie
enamel margin of the side towards which they arcj directed, and an ap-
proach to parallelism of the catering and projecting enamel plates pro-
duces a triturating su]-iace, having the form of a succession of Ws.
This is the reverse of what occurs in IIypud(^UH gapperi according to
Prof. Baird, where the triangles become confluent at their bases, thus
extending all across the crown ; the same tiling is seen in the posterior
inferior molar in all the species. There is no trace of roots to these teeth
or that previously described. Length of crown of second molar, m. 00;)6.

A third specimen is represeutcd by the molars of both maxillary bones,
much brohcn, the posterior of one of the series only being entii-e. This
tooth is slightly curved, and exhibits three ridges on one side, and four
on the other; triangles 1-f and a short loop with two basal angles, the
inner more prominent than the other. None of these triangles arc isolated,
but are rather angular expansions of the continuous dentine. The two
inner angles areniuch more prominent than the outer, but in old age they
Avould probably be equal, judging from their appearance at the base of the
tooth. Viewed from below, they appear to bo closed, showing that the
character of the group Anaiitogonia in this respect is derived from a
"retardation" of growth iu a point which is early attained in true Arvicola.

M.

Length of tooth O.OO.")

'* crown 0.003

Width palate. , . . . .0.004

/

T r^ "V^^"" 0^^~ -vVjiiA J^ ' I'A^^iT--^ l>i_r_^ _-_.^- 1 _ F- - - ■^TSli^-.J- ^■uOn.-

^v rrjwiAJTimm -i^rrr^j^-^rj-^ ^x^_ i-r.^

-i-j l^'Lf^-^L■^_^^':^ _' x-j

1871,]

93

[Cox')e.

i

^

/

t

V

EllETIIIZON", CuV.

The remains of a porcupine of the existing IN'orth American genus
occur in the deposit. It is evidently different from the recent B. dorsatum
and i)rcsents the following clnxractcrs.

Ekituizon cloaci^'um, Cope.
Species nova.

Eejn-esented by a last superior molar of the left side, and a portion of
one of the inferior incisors. The former indicates the distinctness of the
species by two pcculiai-ities. One of these is the greater. vertical depth of
the external inflection of enamel. It is nearly as deep as the internal,
while in B. dor^^ain.ni it is vei-y nuich shallower, the internal extending
down to the alveolar border. This appearance in the present species is
not due to deficient attrition, for the molar in question is well worn, so
as to leave tlie margins of the anterior island well postei'ior to the anterior
enamel margins of the tooth. This anterior island is a transverse oval,
slightly concave behind.

The general form of this tooth is T shaped, with an expanded triangular
base. The second specific character is seen here ; for while the recent
species poscsses an enamel island or annulus which occupies this space
entirely, the E. cloacinum exhibits two, the additional one being on the
inner side and smaller than the usual one. It is suboval, and occupies
the inner posterior angle of the triturating surface, which is expanded,
and less than a riu'lit ano^le. I find no trace of this in five crania which I
had the opportunity of examining.'^' The sizes of botli this tooth and the
incisor are about equal to the hirgest seen in the E. dorsatura. The
enamel of the latter is not smooth, and has a minute interrupfe<l striation.

Antero-posterior diameter of crown of nu:)lar m. 007G ; transverse do.
m. 0077 ; width anterior face of incisor m. 0055.

Lsrus, Linn.

Lepus SYLVATiCUS, Baclim.

Portions of crania of six individuals not distinguishable from this
recent species. The palatal surface of one is exposed, and is longer in
relation to its width than in a recent example. Thus in the former the
length enters the width between the two anterior alveoli 1.2 times ; in the
latter 1.0 times. In Prof. Baird's figure it enters 1.4 times. Some of the
specimens are smaller, some larger than the average of our recent ones.
One of them lind an oval mass of carbonaceous matter in its mouth,
probably the remains of its unswallowed vegetable food.

PRAOTIIEKIu^r, Cope.

Molars similar to those of jCcp;/>'?, rootless, wdth oval crowns transverse
to the axis of the series, all simple ; masticatory surface not divided by
median ridge, enamel boundary emarginate on the inner side. Number
in maxillary bone ? four.

* I owe a skeleton of the A\ dorsatum from Muncy, reuiia., to the kiadaess of my friend, Jas. S.
Lippincutt.

u^_ ^^

Cope,]

94

[April 7,

[III

PliAOTTIEIlIUM PALATINLOI, CopG.

Species nova.

This rodent is represented by tlie palatal region of tlie cranium of one
individual, with four superior molar teeth of each side in position. The
latter diverge symmetrically, probably in consequence of pressure, But a

small part of the palatine suriace is preserved. The normal number of
teeth is uncertain, but the anterior tooth is known from its relation to
the fragments of maxillary bone and perhaps zygomatic arch. It resem-
bles the three molars which follow it. Behind the fourth no trace of
tooth or bone could be found on exploring- the matrix, though the latter
was unbroken, hence it is possible, though not certain, that there were
none.

The genus differs from those of tlio Oeomyinae of Baird, in the sim-
plicity of the first molar. The wide palate and narrower zygoma, as
well as the forms of the teetli, arc those of the rabbits, but it differs from
the two genera., Leiras and Lagomys, in the identity of structure of the
first molar with the others, and the absence of an enamel band dividing
the triturating surface of each of them. In some of the teeth a trace
of the dividing lamina is visible, but does not appear to have been ele-
vated into a crest of the grinding surfaces.

In specific characters, this rodent differs from our rabbits in its small
size, and in having the molars deeply longitudinally grooved on the inner
face, instead of the outer. In worn teeth this groove is continued into
the grinding surface of the crown, without interruption from the enclos-
ing enamel. The form of this surface is tlien an oval, notclied on tlie
inner side, and rounded or slightly truncated on the outer. The palatine
face is hut partially preserved, and is considerably wider in proportion to
the diameter of the teeth than in Lepus sylvaticus.

M.

Length crown of four consecutive molars O.OOGl

Width " one molar 0031

palate between bases of molars 0100

ScALOPS, Cuv.
The only remain certainly referable to this genus is ahumcrus. As the

li

V

n

^

V

1871.] 9'^ fCopo.

form of this element is very cliaracteristic amoi"i<:j the Talpida}, the spe-
cies may bo determined from it with considerable precision. Its form
is less stout than in Talpa europcea and Scalops aguaticu.% but consider-
ably more so than in Condylura cristata. In the uncertainty as to
%vhether it can belong to Scalops breicert, I leave it without a name.

? VEsrEiiTiLio, Linn.

Numerous slender bones referable to this or an allied genus, are found

in the cave deposit.

Mastodox, Cuv.

Mastodon amekicanus, Cuv.

Numerous fragments of teeth, cranium, vertebra^j and extremities, of a

large individual, with tusks measuring five to six inches in diameter.

Some three-crested, and several primary or two-crested molars, indicate

a second, smaller animal.

TAnnuSj Briss.

TAriRUS AMEKICANUS, Auct.

JSTiinicrous teeth from all positions in both jaws indicate several indi-
viduals of different sizes. Some of them are of the size of the existing
species of South America, and do not exhibit any differences of specific
importance.

TAriKus iiAYsrr, Leidy,

Holmes' Postplioc. Foss. S. Ca., PL xvii. hgs. 4, 5, 7, 8.

Four superior and six inferior molars do not differ in any respect from
those of the preceding sj^ecies. excepting in size. la this they exceed the
latter, having about twice the supcrhcial area. Loidy appears to have
proposed this species on account of size only, and the specimens may in-
dicate a valid species. Two superior molars, perhaps referable to the
T. americanics, differ less in size, cxcecdinc^ a little those of our recent

specimens.

Dimensions of three superior molars of the largest (T. liaydi), medium
and smallest {T. americanus) size arc given. Tlielast two are worn, the

first bad not protruded through the gum.

M.

Length, 1 0.0:30

Width, 1 (greatest) 0332

Length, 2 023

WidtJi, 2 (greatest) 029 .

Length, 3 0218

Width, 3 (greatest) 025

In addition to the teeth, there are numerous bones of the extremities,
tarsus, &c., and vertebne.

Equus, Linn.

r

j^umerous phalanges of two species of slender proportions and smaller
size than the recent domesticated horse. Neither the species nor genus
are determinable as yet, from the remains.

'ir

1

i;!'

Cope-]

96

[April 7,

BoSj Linn.

Extremity of a femur, several patelhe and fragments of metatarsals of
a large species of ox or bison are preserved with tlic others. The species
is not yet determined.

There are, perhaps, two other species of ungulate animals not as yet
determined.

Ursus, L.
Uiisus rmsTiNUSj Leidy.
Arciodus pHsUnuSy Leidy. Proc. Acad. Kat. Sci., Philada., 185:1, 00,
Holmes' Postpliocenc Fossils S- Carolina, 18G0, 115, PI. xxiii, f. 3-4.

This bear has been known hitherto by a molar of the lower jaw found
by Prof. Ilolmes near Charleston, S. Ca., and the references above indi-
cate descriptions and figures of tliis tooth alone. Mr. Wheatley's collec-
tion contains the first and second molars in a portion of the right ramus
of tlxe mandible, and the canine and first, second and third molars of the
left ramus separated from it. There are also vcrtcbnu of bears from the
cervical and dorsal regions, wliich are appropriate as to size, and were
found at near the same time as the teeth.

A character which at once distinguishes this bear from all those now
living in the northern hemisphere (faunally speahing), and those known
to have inhabited it during the postpliocenc period, is seen in the first
jnolar. Instead of the usual tw^o series of tubercles, it has ou its ante-
rior half a single rather obtuse crest, above the outer side of the crown.
The crest commences with the apex of an elevated conical tubercle, which
marks a point three-fifths the length of the tooth trom its posterior ex-
tremity. Two very small worn tubercles are seen behind it on each side,
in the specimen, while tlie greater part of the surface of the crown is
nearly plane, and covered by unbroken enamel. It is a little depressed,
and comijressed from the outer side at the x>ostcrior third. The enamel of
the inner side of the crown is smooth, of the outer side obsolctely ru-
gose. The second inferior molar is about as long as the first, but wider,
and of diiferent character. The triturating surface is parallelogrammic
rounded at the ends, and narrowed at the anterior third, and con-
tracted, as compared with the width of the base of the crown.
The enamel, though worn, is nowhere worn through, and its sur-
face is remarkable for the almost absence of tubercles.
ing surface is concave transversely, and is bounded by elevated mar-
gins. The inner and outer display each three obtuse elevations, the
latter the better defined, the anterior the most elevated and connected by
a low cross ridge, which is depressed in the centre. The inner sides of
the crown is swollen at the base, and more oblique than the outer ; both
are marked with obsolete ridges, whicli descend from the grinding face,
those of the outer most distinct. The last inferior molar is two-thirds
the length of the penultimate. The form is oval, broad anteriorly, nar-
row posteriorly. The crown is low and ilat, without tubercles, the
margin a little elevated, and interiorly and i:)Osteriorly mammillated ; it
has a single compressed root.

The grind-

>

)

i

'\\\

^j

■>^\

^

s

I

1871.] 9^ tCope.

The inferior canine is represented by a crown. It is remarkably short,
and stout at the base ; the posterior outline very concave. The usual
obtuse keel is seen on its anterior inner aspect, and worn surface postero-
exteriorly. The apex of tlic crown is worn by use. The smaller pre-
molars have not been recovered, but the last or sectorial has left its
impression in front of the first m(jlar in place in the matrix, and appears
to have been of the proportions seen in the grizzly bear.

Lcno-th three inferior molars and fourth premolar together. 0.090

do M.Tcrown -.■ .02^

AYidth do anteriorly ^^^3

Length M. II. . . . . .....■-. .031

AVidth do anteriorly 0202

Length M. III. -^-^^

Width anteriorly ^^^^

" posteriorly ^^'^'"^

Length crown and root '^'^'*

In size this species probably equalled the grizzly bear, as the teeth are
as large as those of any of the numerous crania in the Museum of the
Academy Katural Sciences, though Prof. Baird gives measurements of
some in the Smithsonian collections, wbit:h arc larger. Should the teeth
be related to the skeleton as in our black bear U. avierieanus, a still lai-ger
size is indicated. The nearest relationship in the characters of dentition
is to be seen in the U. honaeremu, of Gervais-:^ of "Buenos Ayres. It has
the peculiar form of the lirst molar seen in U. prUtinus, but differs spe-
cifically in that of tlie second, wbieb is interrupted in one of its outlhies

and ratlicr more tubercular.

As compared with L^rsxis ampUdem, Leidy, the following relations ap-
pear. Thn last molar hcis a smaller crown than in the type specimen of
the latter. In U. prutuius, and the last is between .50 .To, the length of
tlie second molar ; in IT. ampUde)i.% exactly as in IT. Jwrribilis, five-sixtlis
length of crown, or e(iual the extent of alveolee. The tliird molar is lesfi
contracted behind in the type specimen of U. ampUdens. The latter
species appears to be in many ways nearly allied to the grizzAy bear.

The discovery of this species by :Mr. AVheatley, in Pennsylvania, is par-
ticularly interesting, as tixing an extendod range for it, and proving that
our cave bear is totally distinct from that of Europe, and rather of the
type which was associated with tlio gigantic sloths in the southern re-
gions of South America, at the same geologic epoch.

Felis, Linn.

Two proximal phalanges of a species of this or an allied genus, were
found by Mr. AVheatley. They pertained to an animal of the size of the
jaguar, {Felis onca), A fragment of a canine tooth indicates a cat as
large as the tiger, but is too imperfect to allow of determination. Some
vertebra of a carnivorous animal, perhaps of a dog, were also found.

^Palaeontology of CastciuLUVS Anim. novo, on ^ar Am. Pud., Pi. lig.
A. P. S. — VOL. XII~iI

I .-, — rjfi

«i

'i I

C'^P^'-] 98 [April?,

F

The result up to the present time may be summed up as follows:

Edentata. Species. Individuals.
Megaionyx 5 ^^

Mylodon i 00

Kodentia.

Arvicola q ^^^

Hesperomys 1 -[

Jaculus ■[ I

Sciuius 1 0

Erithizon i -^

Lepus " I Y

Praotherium 1 -^

Undetermined 9 o

Insectivora.
Scalops \ -y

Cliiroptera 9^ g

Ungulata.

Mastodon \ 2

Tapirus 2 ' 4

Equus 2 3

'^^^ 1 3

Undetermined 2 3

Carnivora.

Ursus 1 ^o

Canis ^\ -^

reli« .'..'.'.'.'.'..'.".'.'.'."2 2

L

F.

Mammalia total 34 r.2

Of birds there are fragments of two species, one a turkey, with the
spur preserved, probably the M. altm, Marsh; (J/, .mperhu-s,]- Oo\)o. Trans.
A. Phil. Soc., 1870, pp. 239, ii), the other a snipe. The reptiles include
one or two species of tortoises, and three or four serpents. There are a few
bones apparently of Batrachians. The whole number of species of Yer-
tebrata is about forty, represented by perhaps ninety individuals.

Br. Geo. II. Horn, to whom Mr. Wheatley submitted the insects, re-
ports, at an eai-ly sta.ge of the investigation, thirteen species of Colopicra
and two or three of other orders, including OHhoplera. We await with
much interest the further results of this research, as the determination
of PostpHoceue Coleoptera has not been practicable heretofore. The
names already published by Dr. Ilorn,--^ arc, Ciix^\M;x^~Cychrus loheatleyl
Oycn-rus mirnr, GymincUs aurora, Ghlaenius punctaHmmuR, PteroHt{cJiv.s
laevif/atus, Ft. lonrjipemiis, Dicaelm ahUaceus ; Scarabacidio, Aphodius
sctUellaris, Apho. micmu, Phanaeits aniiquus ; Copris punctulatus ; Ilis-
tcridaj ; Saprinus ? ehenimis.

t As it is now iifteen moutlis since Prof. Harsh announced liis species, and no dfRcnption has
yet appeared, it appears to mo tliat -V. .v»j-r!W;ufi, the only name accompanying a description will
have to be adopted, if the two arc really the same.

*Am. Jour. Sci. Arts, IS71, 385, in a notice by C. M. Wheatley.

/

1S71.]

99

[Cope.

Gkneral Observations.

Several authors have noticed the groat diflercncc in character between
the postpliocene fauna of North America, and those whicli preceded it,
in Tertiary tin:ie. It is well known, that while tbe Miocene Mauunnliaare
more or less similar to those of :Mioeene Europe and Asia, and the Plio-
cene vertebrata have a corresponding resemblance to those of the same
period of Europe and Asia, and the present one of Africa, the postplio-
cene resembles, in many particulars, that of South America or the Neo-
tropical region.

In examining the Hst of postpliocene mammalia, known up to 18G7,"

I found, that of 30 species, eleven were represented by members of tbe
same genus or family, in the Neotropical region. In an enumeration of
the species from the caves in 1809,t which included 27 species of 23 gene-
ra, six genera were shown to be of neotropical type. In an unpublished
list of vertebrata, which the writer exhumed in a bone breccia, from a cave
in East Tennessee, there arc twenty species included. Prominent among
these, are 3Iegaloni/x, Dkotijle.% Tapirus, Certu.^ Rud Scmr us, tliG first
three neotropical. The species from the Port Kennedy bono cave may

be arranged as follows:

Species.

Neotropical forms H

Peculiar Nearetic (North America) . 3

Genera common to north of both Hemispheres 11

Uncertain ■ "

Total ■ . ■ ■ 3^

The theory of evolution requires that change of fauna in any very
brief period of geologic time, should be accomplished by migration. Ac-
cordingly, authors have suspected that Asia and North America, and
perhaps Europe, were connected by land during tlie miocene period.
Thus Leidy, (Mammalia of Dakota and Nebraska, 18G9, p. 3G0), suspects.
that North America was peopled from the west, from a continent now
submerged beneath the Pacific Ocean. Prof. Huxley (Anniv. Address,
Lond. Geolog. Society, 1870), makes a similar proposition, but adds that
there is no evidence as to whether the connection was with Europe or
Asia. In describing fossil Cohitidcu, a family of fresh water fishes, from
Idaho, in 1871, (Proceed. Am. Philo. Soc., p. 55,) I have adduced evidence
that the connection was with Asia. These OobUkl(£, as is well known,
have no existing representatives in America, and arc one of tlie Asiatic
types, cliaracteristic of our Pliocene period. As fresh water fishes, their
migration is restricted to fresh water communication. Now, as the Pocky
Mountain ranges \vere in large part elevated prior to Pliocene time, and
the water courses had their present directions, it is obvious that the mi-
gration of fresh water fishes occupying waters on tlie west side of those
rano-cs, must have been to or from the west, and not the east. That these

*Proc. Acad. ]:\at..Sci.Phil;i. 1867, IM. f rroceed. Am. Phil. Soc. ISOfl. 178.

CopcJ

100

[April

fishes, then, passed through fresh water connections, existing on a conti-
nent now submerged beneath the Pacific Ocean, seems i:)robab]e.

Tiie destruction of the Pliocene fauna is geiierally admitted to liave
been brought about by the rigors of the ghicial climate, and tlio extension
southward of t)ie ice sheet and snow falls. Near the same time, con-
nection with Asia must have been severed by the descent of the North
Pacific Continent. Some Pliocene types, not now existent in North
America, may have been driven into the Neotropical region, and may be
still represented in their descendants, the Lamas, tlie only existing 6'ct-
melidui of t;he new world, with the horses and perhaps others of the higher
mammalia of that region. TJie existence ot the extinct Mmiodoti, Mach-
aerodus, etc., in the postplioeene of the same region, mentioned by Hux-
ley, as a puzzUng fact, (Address 1. c.) may be accounted for in-thc same
way.

Of course, on the northward retreat of the ice sheet, the mammalia
fauna would have to be derived from the south, for communication direct
with Asia no longer existed. If Behrings straits were not yet opened,
the masses of glacial ice covering those regions would effectually prevent
immigration by that supposed connection. The resulting Postplioeene
fauna would naturally partake of the mixed character which our brief in-
vestigations into it have revealed. The neotropical forms would occupy
regions left vacant, or peopled by a sparse remnant of boreal genera and
species. This view I proposed some time ago, ■■ and Dr. Lcidy has added
his valuable opinion to the same elfect.f

Has any great disturbance of level iutcrvene<l between the occupation
of the post-pliocene fauna and the present period '? Prof. Dana (Manual
of Geology, 18G2,) summarizes the results attained up to his writing (p.
553), by showing that the period succeeding the glacial drift was one of
submergence, especially in arctic latitudes. He states the depression near
Montreal to have been 450 or more feet and 1000 feet in Arctic regions.
Of the Middle States ho says nothing, and of the south, that the evidence
is not satisfactory. This descent of level ho regards as that which caused
the melting of the glacial ice, stratification of the drift, deposition of
gravels, and elevation of temperature. All these changes would natu-
rally precede the introduction of a postglacial fauna from a wanner
region, so that for this and other reasons, the Champlaiu epoch may be
regarded as that opening the post-plioccno, and its fauna to bo repre-
sented by the Walrus, wdiicb extended its range to Yirginia, the Reindeer
to New Jersey, and the Beluga of the Champlaiu clays.

The origin of the eaves wliich so abound in the limestones of the Alio-

r

ghcny and i\[ississippi valley regions, is a subject of much interest. Their
galleries measure many thousands of miles, and their number is legi(m. The
writer has examined twcnty-fivc, in more or less detail, in Virginia and
Tennessee, and can add his testimony to the belief that they have been
formed by currents of running water. 'They generalJy extend in a direc-

i

\

^Proceed. Acad. Nat. Scl. 18G7. ]")G. tHammalia Dakota aiitl Nebraska, 359, 1«G0,

jfV

~ ■■ ~ ^ l^.u- __■

^ _i^^jt->._^ A

JS7K]

101

[Cope.

/

tion parallel to the strike of tlie strata, and have their greatest diameter
in the direction of the dip. Their dcptli is determined in some measure
by, the softness of the stratum, whose removal has given them existence,
but in thinly stratified or soft material, the roofs or large masses of rock
fall iuj which interrupt the passage below. Caves, however, exist when
the strata are horizontal. Their course is changed by joints or faults^
into which the excavating waters have found their way.

That these caves were formed prior to the postpliocene fauna is evident
from the fact that they contain its remains. That they were not in ex-
istence prior to the drift is probable, from the fact tbat they contain no
remains of life of any earlier period so far as known, though in only two
cases, in Virginia and Pennsylvania, have they been examined to the
bottom. Ko agency is at hand to account for their excavation, compara-
ble in potency and efficiency to the floods supposed to have marked the
close of the glacial period, and which Prof. Dana ascribes to the Cham-
plain epoch. An extraordinary number of rapidly flowing waters must
have operated over a great part of the Southern States, some of thcni at
an elevation of 1.100 feet and over, (perhaps 2000) above the present level
of the sea. A cave in the Gap ilountain, on the Kanawha river, which
I explored for three miles, has at least that elevation.

That a territory experiencing such conditions was suitable for the
occupation of such a fauna, as tlie deposits contained in these caves re-
veal, is not probable. The matei ial in which the bones occur in the south
is an impure limestone, being mixed with and colored by the red soil
Avliich covers the surface of the ground. It is rather soft, but hardens

on exposure to tlie air.

The question then remains so far unanswered as to whether a submerg-
ence occurred subsequent to the development of the postpliocene mam-
malia]! fauna. That some important cliauge took place is rendered prob-
able by the fact, that nearly all the neotropical types of the animals ha.ve
been banished from our territory, and the greater part of the species of all
types have become extinct. Two facts liave come under my observation'
vvhich indicate a subsequent submergence. A scries of caves or portions
of a single cave once existing on the S. E. side of a range of low hills
among the Allegheny mountains in Wythe Co., Virginia, was found to
have been removed by denudation, fragments of the bottom deposit only
remaining in fissures and concavities, separated by various intervals from
each other. These fragments yielded the remains of twenty species of
postpliocene mammalia,'-- This denudation can be ascribed to local
CAuses, following a subsidence of uncertain ' extent. In a caye
examined in Tennessee the ossiferous deposit was in part attached to
the roof of the chamber. Identical fossils were taken from the floor.
This might, however, be accounted for on local grounds. The islands of
the eastern part of the West Indies appear to Iiave been separated by
submergence of larger areas, at the close of the i)eriod during which they
were inhabited by postpliocene mammalia and shells. The caves of

* See Proccod. Aiucr. riiil. Sue. ISiH*. 171

April?, 1S71.]

102

[Cope

II

Anguilla include remains of twelve vertebrates,^' of which seven are
mammalia of extinct species, and several of them are of large size. These
are associated witli tiie recent species of molhiscs Turbo ^nca and a
Tudora near ]mp(rfonnis.^ As these large animals no doubt required a
more extended territory for their support than that represented by the small
island Anguilla, there is every probability that the separation of these
islands took place at a late period of time and probably subsequent to the
spread of the postpliocene fauna over Korth America.

EXPLAXxVTION OF THE- CUTS.

Figs. 1-13. Sections of teeth of .Uegalonyx of the natural size.

Fig. 1-3. Sections of canine-molars of 3/. loxodon, Cope ; 3a, profile of
2 from williiu.

_ Figs. 3-G. Sections of canine-molars oi Megaloiiyx loheAiileyi, Cope; 5a
side view of 5 from the inner side.

Figs. 7-8. Sections of canine-molars of ? Megaloiiyx dlssiviiUs, Leidy,
or of ilf. vJie alley i, Cope.

Fig. i). Sections of crowns of the superior molars of the right side of
Megalonyx toheaileyi; from separated teeth, the anterior probably of this
species.

Fig. 10. Sections of crowns of the inferior molars of the riglit side of
J/. wJieaikyi^ from specimens in ])lace in jaw.

Fig. 11. Crown of tooth of Ahgalonyx sphenodon, Cope ; lla, same
from the inside.

Fig. 13. View of canine-molar of Merjalcmyx torhthis seen from the
crown ; 13a, inner view of same tooth.

Fig. 10. Grinding surfaces of left inferior molars of Ardicola apeothen,
Cope, enlarged.

Fig 14. Grinding surfaces of second and third superior molars of
Arvicola tetrndeUa, Cope.

Fig. \~). Same of Arvicola dideUa, Cope, enlarged; a, b, c, of the first
inferior molar ; d, of the superior niolars.

Fig. 10. First inferior molar giluding surface of Armcola znvoUUa, Cope,
enlarged.

Fig. 17. Same of ArrAcola sujmodiis. Cope, enlarged; a, b, c, of llrst
inferior molar ; d, of superior molars.

Fig. 18. Sa.me oi ArvicMa MatidGns, Cope, enlarged; a superior molar
1 or 3, incomplete; b, ?A superior molar; c, 1st inferior. The entering
folds should not be in contiuit in iigs. a and /;, in cuts.

Fig. 10. Grinding surface of last superior mohxv of J'JnfM"0)i cloacimuny
Cope, natural size.

Fig. 30. Superior molar teeth (incomi)lete) of P mother iwm prilaUmimj
Cope, natural size.

^' Loc. cit. 1309. IS3; 1870, 003. A fourth species of si-aaUc Chincliillifi lias been found 1)\- Tn-
Rijgcr.sTiia. which may bo called Loxonu/Ia,^ <i'indram. Cope. It is rcprcstMitcd by ])ort!ons of Viws
and tw til oi tliRM* individuals. It is oiio ot ilir lar-cst wpccics, c(iii;inin- the iX ^a^ii/cji,-; and has
several niarkrd characters. Thus the roots ot the mohtrrf arc very short, and the trituratiu"-
surlacc oblique to the shaft. Tlie roots of the second and fourth are longer th.in (ti^se of the tirst
and third. The last molar has four dental columns instead of three as in tlie oihcr l.'nomyli and 'is
trianfful;n-orqu;idrant-sii;i|j<'d in section; the third Is qiindnni^nd^nin section, and has three' coiumus
The second is the smallest. beiiiK oidy .6 Uie leii^^tli uf the subtrian^L^ulaf, lirst. Length of dental
series m. w)Z or 2.r> inches. Palate narrow and deeply coucave. There is but little or no lateral
constri(diou in the outlines of the teeth; the slnink-s are entirely straight. In it^ additional
dentinal column, this si)ecies approaches the fienus Amhli/rhizn.

The larsc Chinchillas of Anguilla are as loliows, Loxoini/lus luiKjldcns, L. luiidand, L. quadrans and
Ainhlijritha imindala.

t See Bland, Proceed. Amer. Phil. Soc, 1S71, 53.

\

\
I

I

- -x^^bTbI^^ ^LH..-^rr--0^^i.^

October 21,1870.]

103

[Cope.

\

)

\

ON MEGAPTERA BELLICOSA.
By E. D. CorE, A M.

{Bead October 21, 1870, Ijefore. tlie American Pfdloso^^liical Society.)

For many years American Whalers have been m the habit of talcing
Immp-back whales off the coast of San Domin^-o, and in other parts of
the Caribbean Sea. Desiring to determine the species -syhicli is the
object of their pursnit, and which, no doubt, haunts the Floridan and

V

Fthx.

Fio-. 21. ^ig- 2r>.

other southern coasts of tlie United States, I wrote to my friend, Dr. A.
Goes, colonial pliysician at St. Bartliolomew's, W. E, ia reference to the
possibility of procuring a .^.keleton of it. His efforts, undertaken in pur-
suance of this object, resulted in the preservation of the skeleton of an
individual of thirty-two feet in lengtli, which he forwarded to Philadel-
phia, and which has furnished the following characteristics.

:\m

CopeJ

104

[Oct. 21,

The skeleton laeks a few pieces, viz. : the sternum, pelvic bones, and
jierhaps four caudal vertehrai. Of the latter, one is a large anterior
vertebra, two are median, and one between the latter and the distal.
The wliole nuraber thus restored will be, Cerv. 7, D. 14, L. 10, Caud, 20 ;
total 51. The lengths of the cranium and these elements arc :

Ft. Tn.

Cranium 9

Caudal vertebrae 8 10

Iveniaindcr of vertebra; 13 6

Total ai 4

The cranium is not very different in some respects from that of tlie
3/. longimana of the Nortli. The supraoccipital bone has a deep but
open median groove from the foramen magnum to near the hori-
zontal superior surface, where it is wanting. On ca.ch side of it there
is a considerable protuberance near the middle oC tlie height of that bone.

i

I

ug. 2^.

■'f

Fig. 24.

T]sc orbital plates of the frontal are plane, with straight anterior and
posterior margins. The posterior extremities of the premaxillaries are
laminar- their middle portions are separated by a considerable vacuity.
The maxillaries arc not sh;nder, and are plane; they present several
large foramina near their middle. TJie nasal bones present marked
characters. Their median face of common contact extends throufdiout
much of their length, and the posterior divergent i)ortion is very short
(kSBC fig. 23), and serrate for suture. A beveled i)ortion of the external
face (fig. 33a) is concealed by the maxillaries; the remaining portion is
narrow. The median projection of the bones is less than the lateral, and
is carried on a keel above the level of the lateral portion of the bone, as

1870. ]

105

[Cope.

{

\

in Sibbaldias tecilrostrU, Cope. The whole form is very different from
that oC the If. lonijimana. The depth and leii<;-t,]i of tlie bone ou the
interior (median) face, are abont eqnal. The otic bulla is svibcylindric,
a little flattened on the inner side ; its surface is quite smooth.

The ramus of the mandible is slender, and when viewed from above,
considerably curved. It has an elevated subtriaugular and acuminate
coronoid process, quite as in a Baltcnoptcra. (Fig. 24 from above.) Prox-
imallythe ramus has a slight sigmoid curve viewed from the side (iig. 23),
and in the general is more slender than that of M. longimana, in profile.
. The angular process is prominent ; the shaft is plane on the inner side, on
the external very convex ; it is nowhere compressed, and the external
l^ores are widely separated.

Fig. 25.

The atlas has no neural spine and no iu-herculum atlanUs. The dia-
pophyses are compressed, irregulai-ly truncate, their inferior margin con-
siderably above the fundus of the foramen, denfa-ti. The axis presents a
]-udimental odontoid process. Its diapophysis and parapophysis are not
very stout, and the former is the longer. The parapophyses diminish
rapidly till the fifth vertebra presents only a rudiment on one side. The
articular faces of these cervicals are a transverse ovate. The diapophyses
are slender and straight. (See Hgs. 2G atlas, 27 axis, and 28, third cer-

vical. )

Fig. 97 Fig. 28.

Two of the diaphophyses of the caudal vertebrae arc hooked in form,
owing to the failure to isolate anteriorly the foramen wliich pierces them.
The scapula is without rudiment of coracoid and is longer than deep ; its
proportions are similar to those of 3L osphyia.

The fore limbs are neither of lliein quite complete. The epiphysis of
tlie humerus is still fi'ee, and indicates that the animal was young when
captured. The bones of the forearm are niuch as figured by Rudolx>hi

A. P. S. — VOTi. xir— K"

I

cope] ' 1^^^ t^^^--^'

in the M. longimana ; the radius stout, expanded at the ends, the ulna
shorter, more slender, curved and with an olecranon. The metacarpi, or
the first series, arc quite elongate, except that of the upper (inner) digit,
wliich is stouter. If there were six digits in the second digit (third), the
limb measured 8 feet 4 inches, but if, as in 3/. lonrjimana, there were

eight, it equalled the cranium in length (9 feet).

. Measurements. P- ^^'

Total length of skull, (axial) ^

Length of maxillary to emargination for frontal plate 5 5

" transverse, (to axis of skuh) of orbital frontal plate 2 5

'' longitudinal " " *' ^ ^ ^

Distal width over orbit " " " ^^'^

Length nasal bone ■

Width " " ^ ^^

Width cranium behind orbits, (greatest) ^^ 4

'' muzzle half way to frontal plates ^ 3-5

*' maxillary J way *' '' 10.5

Lenn-th mandibular ramus on curve ■ • '^

First rib, length on curve

" " distal width "^

Humerus length

Radius " ^ I ^

Scapula height • • ^'^"^

'' width ■ ■ ■ • • ^^'^

'' glenoid cavity length - ■• ^l-^

i' '< '' width 0

The simple headed tirst rib indicates the generic relationships to bo
with Megaptera, as docs the entirely simple scapula.

In reply to my enquiries, Dr. Goes gives the following account of the
external appearance of this whale. The dorsal outline is strongly con-
vex, and it is questionable wdiether a dorsal fm exists, as he had not seen
it oil two specimens from the decks of the vessels to which they were fast-
ened. The color is sooty black above, tlic breast, belly, and under sides
of pectoral fms milk white, marked with scattered black spots or dots.

The condition of the specimen allows of an exact comparison with^tho
species of this gcnns already known from the Atlantic Ocean. The
skeletons of the two raciiic species, are unfortunately unknown, so that
comparison Avith them cannot be made.

From M. laUndii of the Cape seas, it may be at once distinguished by
its lack of acromion process on the scapula. ' Cuvier, who figures the
Cape species, ->• docs not indicate the deep occipital groove, but rather a
keel witiiout lateral protuberances, a difference too marked to be de-
pendent on age; his orbital plates of the frontal arc considerably narrow-
er, and his fourth cervical bears no parapophyses. He does not figure such
a prominent coronoid process. The coloration of this species is much
like that of the West Indian whales.

■'^OssemGns Fossiles. i;27-l.

I

\

187n. ]

107

[Coi>o.

I

Many marked diifcrences scpai'ate it from the Kreporlcakj of the north-
ern Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The elevated coronoid process and pcci-
liar nasal hones distingnish it at once. Thus in 7?. longimaiut these ele-
ments arc shorter and wider, consirlerably separated bebinfl, and with the
median process which overhangs the narcs, considerably longer than
the lateral. The reverse is the case here (fig. 3). The head bears a
greater proportion to the length of the body than hi B. longimaaa. Tims
Flower notes a spicimen in mus. Louvain (Belgium), of 32 feet 2 in. in
length, of which the head measures only 8 ft. G in. In the present of
31.6 in., the cranium is 9 ft. In aspecimenat Brussels of 40 ft., the head
is 12 ft., nearly one fourth. In a young specimen of 28 ft. 7 in., at Ley-
den, Flower says the cranium measures only 7 ft. 7 in. In a specimen
from the Dee, England, the proportions are similiar. As the length of
the flippers is similar to that of the bead, the difference is to bo seen in
this also. Other characters which distinguish the species from B.
longimana, are the less concavity of the orbital plates of the frontal an-
teriorly, and the reduction of the lumbosacrals to 10. IfPiudolph's
figures be correct, the first rib is broader in the present animal, but the
figure may be inaccurate. As to color, the pectoral fm is entirely white
in the Arctic Megaptera; black externally in this one.

The same differences are to be observed in comparing with the M.
osphi/ia, in which the head and fin are oven shorter than in 3/". longimana,
(the proportion being 9.40--J and the coronoid process equally rudiment-
ary. Special features of the latter are seen in the Hat, deep diapophyses
of atlas, which are much deeper than in the present whale ; and the artic-
ular area on the hinder angle of the first and other ribs, which is wanting
here. The width of tlic orbital plates distally is, .5 their length in the
type of M. osphyia, .83 the length in the present specimen.

The species described by Gray (Catal. B. ^lus., 186G, 102,) as PJti/scdus
hrasilienns, founded on some baleen of the " Bahia finner," has been
supposed by me (Proc. A. M. Scio. Phila., 1867, p. 32,) to be a Mcgaptera.
Certain it is that a Mcgaptera is found at Bahia, as I have seen larger
and smaller portions of two skeletons of one, but whether it be the
"Bahia Finner" and 7*. hranliemis, Gray, is quite doubtful. In the
first place, fishermen and whalers never call a *' hump-back" (Megaptera)
a 'Tinner ;" if they have done so in the case of this species, it evidently
has a noticeable dorsal fin, which is wanting in the present whale. In
the next place, baleen of the "Bahia finner" has a commercial value,
being exported to Ihiglaud, while that of Megaptera has none, being
coarse and twisted. That of the specimen here described was thrown
away by it captors.

I therefore believe that the present wliale has not been noticed by nat-
uralists, and is unknown to Zoology. I propose to call it Megaptera

UELLICOSA.

Dr. Goes says of its habits, that it appears about the island of St. Bar-
tholomew in the beginning of ^larcli, or even in February, and remains

^Scei'roc, Ac. Nat. Sci., 1868-194.

I

Cope]

108

[Oct. 21, 1S70.

until the end of May. In April and May it is said that they arc seen iu
pairs, standing vertically in tlie water. Wlicn they retnrn, they often
come in a family of three, male, female and young, tlic calf of one or two
years old. The bull is wild, and more difficult to take than the female,
and he has, on two occasions, smashed the hoat of his pursuers to pieces.
In Juiie they are said to go farther in the Mexican Gulf, and return east-
ward in the autunan, but they do not appear among the smaller Antilles
at that time."''- Dr. Goes supposes that they X)nss the straits of Florida, or
follow the shores of tlie South Main. lie says that the whalers think they
pass the middle of winter on the African coast, but this will require
confirmation.

/

1 1 -ll

111

Additional note on BAJ^Aii^^oi^TiLiiA vel Sibbaldius sulfureus. Cope.

This species was first brought to the notice of zoologists by Captain C.
M. Scammon, in -.vn extended i)aper on the Cetacca of the Pacific Coast
of North America.'^ From the data furnished by him, the writer was
enabled to determine it as distinct from any of tlte species hitherto known,
under the above nnmc, with the fohowing characters :f

Dorsal tin small, conic, situated on the posterior fourth of tlie back.
Form slender ; length seventy to ninety feet. Color, above, grey or
brown ; below, sulphur yellow.

Capt. Scammon having sent to the museum of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution four laminiB of whalebone, I am enabled to add important points
to the above diagnosis, as follows :

Baleen black cvej-y where. Brif^tles intermediate in size, between those
of Sibbaldius tectirostris, Cope, (hner) and Megaptera osphyia (coarser),
in six or eight rows, and seven or eight inches in length. Length of
plate, without bristles, two ft. eiglit inches ; width of base eighteen
inches.

The above characters show conclusively that this whale is different
from the B. arUarciica, Gray, which is also called sulphur-bottom by the
whalers iji tJie South Pacific. Tlie whalebone of the latter is yellowish
white.

' EXPLAXATIOX OF CUTS.

Fig. 31 — Cranium of Megiiptera hellicosa from above.
Fig. 23 — Nasal bones from above.

Fig. 23 — Posterior portion of ramus mandibuli, from outside.
Fig. 34— Same as 23 from above.
Fig. 25 — Basihyal bone from above.
Fig. 26— Atlas from front.

Figs. 37 and 37 — Portions of articular faces and processes of atlas and
third cervical vcrLebraj.

Laminae witli weak transverse rnti'osities.

■*rrocced. Acad. Knt. Sci., Pliila., 1869, p. 51.
t Loc, cit., p. 20.

109

I

Slated Meeting^ April Ith^ 1871.

Mr. Fkaley, Vice-President, in tlie Chair.

Present, twelve members.

Donations to tlae Library were received from the Academies
at Berlin and Lejdcn, the Roj'al Society at London, and the
Editors of Nature, the Old and New^ and Penn Monthly, tbe
New Bedford Public Library, Medical Journal, Pranklia lu-
stitnte, College of Pharmacy, Academy of Natural Science at
Philadelphia, the Engineer Bureau at Washington, Essex In-
stitute, Wisconsin Historical Society, and from Prof. Mayer,
of Bethleliem.

Prof Cresson laid before the Society a map of Fairmount
Park, reduced by photolithography to a very small size, yet ex-
hibiting every lino clearly.

Prof. Cope described additional new genera and species
from tlie Port Kennedy Cavern, nearly one half of which were
of South American types.

Mr. Chase read a communication on '^ The Resemblance of
Atmospheric, Magnetic and Oceanic Currents."

Lieut. Button explained his views of the origin of Regional
Subsidence and Elevation,

The curators were rcfinested to provide for the proper
preservation of the Photographs of lanes of Magnetic Force,
presented to the Society by Prof Mayer.

w

Pendin^^ nominations were read and the meeting was ad-
journed.

1^-- ■ l^^.^^■ - ■^4fj_r. r^j'^^^J.?L^^U^>r±r^Ar- ■ ^:i^"i|- ^m^^

ititOHM

^

7

M

ii

^

A

110

Slalcd Meeting^ April 21st^ 1871.

Prof. Cressox, Vice-President, in the Chair,

Present, eleven members.

A Photograph fortlic Albnm "was received from Prof. Alex-
ander Brann, of Berlin.

Letters acknowledging the receipt oftlie Society's recent pub-
'ications were received from the Institute at Halifax, (entire
series of Proceedings No. 1-84), New York Lyccnni (85
Eoyal Society of Edinburgh, 78, 79-81, and Trans. (XIII. 3);
and the Royal Saxon Society (XIII. 3],

Letters of Envoy were received from the Society at Gor-
litz, and the Editors of Old and New.

■Donations for the library were received from Dr. Braun,
of Berlin, the Upper Lausatian Society, the Anthropological
Society and Geological histitute at Viemia, the Italian Geo-
logical Committee, M'. Seguin aine of Paris, the Linnean,
Chemical, Asiatic and Antlcpiarian Societies in London, the
Editors of Nature, the Eoyal Society at Edinburgh, the Phih
osopliical Society at Glasgow, the Institute of Sciences at Hali-
fax, the Pcabody Academy at Salem, Sillinian's Journal, Prof.
Hall of Albany, the Young Men's Association at Buffalo, Mr.
H. C. Bolton of New York, tlic New Jersey State Geologist,
the New Jersey Historical Society, the Franklin Institute,
and tl.ie chief of tlie U. S. corps of Topographical Engineers.

The death of Wm. Ilaidinger of Vienna, on the 19th ultimo,
was announced with appro})riate remarks by Dr. Genth.

The death of Edward Lartet, in the department of Gers,
during the late German investment of Paris, was announced
by the Secretary. Mr. Cope added his personal testimony to
the value of thePala?,ontolo2rical labors of the deceased.

o

Prof. Cope offered for publication in the Proceedings, a Pre-
liminary Keport on the Yertebrata discovered in the Port Ken-
nedy Cave.

III!

I

111

Dr. Gcutli described some striking results of recent analysis
of Pseudomorpli Corundums, and promised a fuller account
of tlieni when his investi-"ations were further advanced.

Prof Cresson desired a memorandum to be made of the
appearance of the tender shoots of the swamp cal)l)age, blue
bell and other wild flowers, under remarkable circumstances
of difficulty, in a part of Belmont Glen, in the Phikdelpbia
Park, wdicre an artificial asphalt road had been laid directly
upon the sod. The road was two inches thick, perfectly solid,
and in use by vehicles. Yet this rigid and heavy covering
has been lifted and broken in many places by the young plants,
which present themselves in a living, although damaged com
dition to the air and light.

The Secretary descriljcd a new discovery Avhich he had just
made in East Tennessee, of a sharp anticlinal axis, crossing
the coal measures of the Cumberland mountains, at right an-
gles to the dominant system of disturbances, and showed its
important bearings on the question of the conversion of the
northern anticlinals into the southern downthrows, as well as
its relationship to the latter; and to the cross undulations
worked out by Mr. Joseph Lesley, in his instrumental survey
of the East Kentucky coal measures, twelve or thirteen years
ao;o; and also to the N. W., S. E. system of faults described by
Owen, Hall and other Geologists, in the valley of the Missis-
sippi.

Mr Brio-erg described certain movements observed under the

' OO

microscope in matter mechanically suspended in a fluid and
vulgarly snpposed to indicate vital force, a view from wdiich he

dissented, referring to Baron Kumford's recorded observations
of the same phenomenon. Mr. Briggs took occasion to ex-
hibit for the inspection of the members, the Watt medal
w^hich he had received from the Society of Civil Engineers in
London.

Pendino: Nominations K"os. 669 to 67-i were read, and
balloted for, after which the presiding Officer pronounced the

J

f :
I

112

following named gentlemen duly elected members of the
Society :

Gen. Herman Llanpt, of Philadelphia.
Prof. E. B. Andrews, of Marietta, Ohio.
Eev. F. A. P. Barnard, D. D., LL. D.^ President of Columbia
College, N. Y.

Rev. T. D. Woolsey, I). D., President of Yale College^ New
Haven, Connecticut.

Rev. James McCosh, D. D., President of Princeton College,
New Jersey.

Prof. Charles W. Eliot, President of Harvard College,
Cambridge, Massacliusetts.

And the Society was adjourned.

Slated 2Iedinrj^ May 5, 1871,

Prof. Cressox, Yicc-Prcsident^ in the Cliair

Present, fourteen members.

I n,

A letter accepting membership was receiyed from Charles
W. Eliot, dated Cambridge, May 1, 1871.

A letter 'acknowledging receipt of Tians^ A. P, S. XTY. I.
was received from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Donations for the Library were received from tbe R. Prus-
sian Academy, P. Astronomical Society, Sir Charles Lycll,
Editors of Nature, Old and New, Penn Monthly and Canadian
Naturalistj the Peabody Academy at Salem, Boston Natural
History Society, Massachussetts Historical Society^ New
York Lyceum, College of Pliarmacy, Baltimore Public
School Commissioners, Hon. Charles Sumner, Dr. Hayden, P.
B. Dyke, and a Map of St. Domingo from Dr. Genth.

ill! ill

I

. 113

The Secretary read tlic descriptiou of a new and improved
field transit instrument, niaBuflxctured by Messrs. Heller and
Briglitley of Philadelphia; and exhibited the parts of the
instrument which show improvements.

The Secretary read fi'om Mr. Jno. Fulton's report of the
Man-iraoth Fossil Ore bed discovered in 18G7, in Woodcock
Valley, Blair Co., Fa., in evidence of what important dis-
coveries may still be made in districts of tlie State supposed

to be well known.

The Secretary offered for publication in the Proceedings, a
Grammar and Vocabulary of the Mexican language, by Mr.
Adolf Burck, which was referred to Dr. Brinton.

Mr. Chase exhibited two corresponding Curves; one of the
annual auroral curve at New Haven ; the other of the annual
rain curve at Philadelphia; and described the probable cause

of their airreement.

And the Meeting was adjourned.

Stated Meetiwj^ June 16, 1871.

Prof. 0. B. TREao, in the Chair

Present, five members.

A photograph of Mr. Joseph Saxon was pres3nted by him
self, for insertion in the Album.

A letter of envoy was received from the U. S. Naval Ob

servatory.

Donations for the library were received from the Berlin

Academy, London Astronomical Society, Editors of Nature,
Geological Survey of Canada, Essex Institute, Boston Public
Library, Massachusetts Historical Society, Editors of Old and

A. r. S. — VOL. XII— o

I
- I

Mi

im

."1

lU

New, Cambridge Musenm of Comparative Zoolooy^ Mr. Ed-
muDd Quincy, Silliman's Journal, New York St.^!e Library,
American Literary Bureau, Franklin Institute, Medical News,
College of Pharmacy, Board of Water Works, Fairmount Park
Commission, Penn ^vFontldy, G. M. Wheatley of Pliccnixville,
Pennsylvania Board of Public Charities, Smithsonian Listi-
tutc, U. S. N. Observatory, and Georgia Historical Society.

Tlie Committee to whom was referred the Aztec grammar
and vocabulary of Mr. Burck, reported against its publication,
and the Committee was discharged from further consideration
of the subject.

Mr. TT. W.Ficld, a member of the Society, was appointed to
prepare an obituary notice of the late Sir John F. AY. Ilershel.

Mr. Lesley communicated to the members present, certain
geological facts respecting the percentage of volatile matter in
the six-foot coal bed near Ursina, Somerset County, Pennsyl-
vania, and the percentage of titanic acid in the iron ores near
Greensboro, North Carolina, with a view to placing them on
record.

Mr. Chase communicated a note upon the English wind-ta-
bles, and a note upon the nature oi' the Tidal Wave.

Mr. Cope announced that 800 species of fish had been re-
ceived by him from Vienna, in good condition, being that part
of Prof IJyrtrsOsteological Collection which Prof Cope had
secured, against the competition of the British Museum, and
other European Cabinets desirous of possessing it, and de-
scribed the admirable character of the preparations.

r

Pending nominations, Nos. G77 and 678 were read.

An extract was read from a letter of M. Carlier to M.
Durand, respecting the Michaux rentes. '

On motion of Mr. Cope, an appropriation was made of an
additional sum of $35, to cover the total expense for the illus-
trations of his paper on Megaptcra Bellicosa, published in the
proceedings, and Jiis paper on the Fishes of the Lesser Antilles,
published in the tivansactions.

And the meeting was adjourned.

r

Ilcllcr ana Brightley.]

115

[May 5th,is:i

\

IIelleu akd Biugiitley's New Tra^^sit.

The Engineers and Surveyors' Transit as at first consti-nctcd commonly
termed a ''^lat centre,'' or "Railroad Transit," altliougli superior to the
English Theodolite which it superseded, yet in practice has been found
delective in the fohowino- mechanical details.

1st. The upper or vernier plate, resting and turning upon the under or
graduated limb, was accompanied by so much friction, caused by the
large extent of the rubbing surfaces, that in turning the vernier plate
around the limb, the whole instrnmciit would sometimes be moved upon
the lower spindle.

2d. The od that was necessarily used to lubricate the plates, would be-
come so congealed in cold weather that the plates would not m.ove at all,
and old Railroad Engineers will readily recall the thawing out of their in-
struments over large fires, at every fall of the thermometer, before they
could be used.

3d. The spindle upon which the entire instrument turns, being detached
from tlie instrument, thus violating one of the standard rules, that by long
experience in this country and Europe, has been fouud necessary in the con-
struction of any instruincnt with any pretensions to accuracy, viz. : ''any
instribinent having a graduated plate and levels should he so constructed
that both of the centres 9 rp on tchirh the instrument turns should he always
covered and not dciacliahle from the main plates:^ To prove the utility of
tins rule, it is only necessary after adjusting the levels of one of this class
of Transits so that they wdl reverse on the top centre, to clamp the two
plates togetlier, and turn the instrument on the lower spindle, and the
levels will invariably be found out of adjustment, showing conclusively
that through some cause, most frequently the settliug of flying dust, etc.,.
upon the surface and shoulder of the spindle, the spindle is not at right
angles to the surfaces of the plates.

4lh. The centre around which the graduated limb revolves can only be
the thickness of the graduated hmb ; this centre by reason of its small
surface wears after compai-atively short use, and does not exactly iit the
conical hole in the graduated limb, and two readings of the same object
taken without any change in the position of the instrument have been found
to differ by 5', and from no other cause than this.

These various defects have caused this style of instrument to be entirely
discarded in city work, and for this another construction is used in which
the two main plates do not touch each otlier, thus obviating the two first
evils, viz. : the friction of the two plates rubbing one over the other,
and the stiffness of motion of the plates in cold weather. The sockets
and spindles upon which the main ^dates revolve being long and fitting

.*

Ileller and Brightly.]

116

[May 5th,

one inside of tlie ot.liei', and ncitlier of them being exposed or dctaclied
from the instrument, thus remedying the two last; causes of eiTOi'. These
two are the only styles of Transit made, and are respectively termed the
"short centre Transit" and the ^'long centre Transit." The "lon*^
centre," althougli the most perfect in its construction, has never been a
favorite among Railroad Engineers for the following reasons :

1st. The increased size of the centres making it heavier, and this beino-
a very serious objection where an instrument must be carried several
miles every day as is frequent in Kailroad surveys.

2d. The instrument not being detached from the tripod, except at the
base, compelled the Engineer in moving the instrument from one station to
another to either cari-y the entire instrument himself or trust it to las assist-
ant, while in the short centre, the instrument lifting off the spindle, the
Engineer could take the comparitively light instrument with all the im-
portant parts, and leave his assistant to carry the heavier portion of the
tripod with its leveling screws, legs, etc.

I

3d. The removing and replacing of tlie instrument on the tripod being
accomplished by means of a large screw thread, is a very tedious and un-
safe method, and if not very carefully performed is liable to injure the
instrument.

4th. The extra skill, time, and care required in making the long centre
was so much greater than the flat centre, that the price of the instrnnient
was materially increased.

Ever since the introduction of the Transit numerous endeavors liavo
been made to reduce the weiglit of the iustrumeat, but as they have all
been conducted on the same principle, i. e., reducing the thickness of tho
various plates, etc., their only effect was to make the instrument so slight
as to be unsteady, tlieir bearing surface so short as to soon wear loose,
and the instrument always losing its adjustment. The manufacturers of
this instrument have had their attention drawn to the increased streuirfch
and steadiness that the employment of the "transverse section," " rib-
bing or bracing," imparted to metals; and the amount of metal that
could be removed from a solid plate of metal, and its strength and steadi-
ness not impaired, but even added to, if only judicious ribbing was re-
sorted to. In this improved Transit, which is a long centre, the weight
as compared with an ordinary Transit of the same size is reduced onedialf,
and the instrument is not contracted in any part, but in some parts where
increased size would be an advantage, such as the graduated plate, centre,
etc., it has been done, but all the plates, etc., are ribbed in such a way as
to be stronger than a solid plate, and all metal that did not impart
either strength or steadiness has been removed.

The Railroad Engineer has in this instrument a long centre Transit
that can be taken from off the tripod and replaced in a quicker and surer

H ■*.

\.

1871.]

117

[Ucllorand Brightley.

way than the sliort centre Transit, but unlike the short ceutrOj heeps all
the centres coshered and. not reniovahlc from the instrument, and leaves
the tripod head and legs with the four levelling screws, etc., to be carried
by his assistant. The difference in weight will be appreciated by the
Kailroad Engineer when Ave inform him that a plain Transit with all its
centre^, etc., only weighs about as much as a Surveyor's Sight Compass,
and is more steady and keeps in ndjustment better than the ordinary long
centre transit, weighing from 25 to 30 pounds.

The City Engineer has in tins instrunient all the advantages of the
ordinary "long ceiUre Transit" with only half the weight, and an in-
crease of steadinsss.

There are several defects that are common to all Transits, among which
arc —

1st. The "tangent or slow motion screw" that moves the iipper or
vernier plate, by nse becomes worn and does not fit precisely the thread
in the interior of tlie nut through which it passes. AYhen this occurs the
tangent screw can be turned sometimes a complete revolution without
moving the vernier plate. This " lost motion " or "back lash" of the
tangent is one of the worst annoyances of Engineers, and has been the
source of serious errors in the held. Several methods have been devised
to overcome this which we will here describe. The nut through which
the screw works lias been made in two sections to allow of being diawn
tu^, i " .er when the screw wears. This plan would ;inswer if the screw always
wore equally in every portion of its length, iji other words 'was a cylinder,
but this it never does, and if the nut is tightened so that the lost motion
is removed from the thinner portion of the screw, it will move so tightly
as to be useless when it conies to the portions that are not worn so thin.
There are several methods of drawing the nut together, but they have
all the same objections as the above, that is, they are not effective in thn
entire length, and the nut nuist be pressed so very hard on tbe screw as
to make the working of the tangent very tense, especially in cold weather.
Another, and the last method has been to apply a long spiral spring be-
tween the nut and the head of the screw that acts as the linger piece,
thus pressing the nut and the screw from each other, and consequently
removing all "lost motion" from the screw. This plan t]i(»ugh in
theory very good, in practice has been found inoperative, for the
following reason : the spiral spring had of necessity to be made long
enough, and stiJf enough, to act in every portion of the screw's length,
the alternate opening and closing of the spring by use weakened it, and
m a short time it failed to remove the "back play." To get rid of this
defect of "lost motion " in the tangent screw, opposing or butting screws
have been sometimes substituted, but in use they do not give satisfaction,
as two hands must be employed in using thorn, and standing from the
edge of the plate, they are liable to be injured by blows, and they are
apt, unless very carefully used, to throw the instrument out of level.

I|!

i

,1-

in

H-i

t**

m

Heller ami Briglitlcy.]

118

[May 5tli,

In this instrument we have an improved tangent screw ; that no matter
how much tlie screw may wear by use, or time, will never get " lost mo-
tion," but will instantly obey the slightest touch of the hand : this is
effected by means of a long cylinder nut, from the interior of which two-
tliirds of the screw have been removed ; into half the recess thus left in
the nut, is nicely fitted a cylindrical "follower," with the same length of
screw thread as the nut ; this follower is fitted witli a "key," that pre-
vents it turning in the recess, but allows motion in the direction of its
length. A strong spiral spring is placed in the remaining half of the
recess, between the fixed nut and the movable follower, and the spring-
has always tension enough to force the follower and fixed thread in con-
trary directions, and thus to remove any "lost motion " that may occur
in the screw. It will be observed, that in this method the spring always
remains in a state of rest, instead of closing and opening, as has been
the case in all other applications of springs, and which Jiave been the
cause of their failure. Tangent screws that have had as much as 10^
play, have been made to work entirely taut by this metliod.

The mode of attaching the tangent screw to tlie plates in this instru-
ment is entirely new — it is a miniature modification of the "Gimbelling"
of a ship's comi)ass, and allows the tangent screw, by its free swivel-
ling, to be tangent to tlic plates in every part of its length, and thus
never to bind. This tangent screw is also of value for sextants, astro-
nomicalinstruments, &c., where lost motion is detrimental, and a smooth,
easy motion is reriuired.

In all instruments, the brass checks in Avhich the three legs of the
tripod play, are fastened to the lower parallel plate by a number of small
screws, commonly twelve. When the legs wear in the cheeks, and be-
come unsteady, the only method the Engineer has of tiglitoning the legs,
is by drawhig the cheeks, in which the leg moves, by means of the bolt
that passes through the leg ; tliis, of necessity, draws the cheeks out of
perpendicularity, and strains the small screws that bind tlie cheeks to
the parallel pkite so mucli, as irc(iuently to loosen them. This source of
instrumental error hardly, if ever, occurs to the Engineer, but very good
instruments have been condennied as unsteady, wdicnan examination has
shown the fault to be the above. This source of error can never occur in
this instrument, as the cheeks and tliC parallel plate are mnde in one
solid piece.

But to come to the last and most serious evil. The effective power of
tlie Telescope is impaired by spherical aberration ; that is, tlie held of
view, as seen in the Telescope, is not a perfect i^lanc or flat, but is
spherical. To prove this, take an ordinary telescope, and focus it so tliat
an object will he clearly defined at the intersection of the cross hairs
or the centre of the field of view, then, by means of the tangent screw,
bring the same object to the edge, of the Acid of view and it will be found in

?..

i

m

<!

1S7I.]

119

[Ileller and Brightlcy.

every case to be inclistlnct and not in focus ; on the contrary, focus it so as to
be distinct at the edge, and it will bo indistinct wlien brought to the centre.
In some telescopes, lioweverj it is impossible to focus at the outer edge
of the fielci, and objects will be tinged with prismatic colors, showing
that these glasses are affected by chromatic aberration also ; sometimes
the cause of this defect lies in the object glass, but in the majority of
cases, the lenses composing the eye-piece are in fault.

[

^^^^^^^ r

These aberrations affect the working of the telescope in several ways.
First, it practically diminishes the size of the object glass, and the view
is never so clear and distinct as it ought to be. Second, It is very diffi-
cult, and in some cases almost impossible, to adjust the eye-piece to
prevent parallax, or " travelling" of the cross wires, when the eye is
shifted from side to side ; and practical engineers know what a sharper
power of deliniiig, and how much less trying to the eyes a "soft glass"
has^that is, one that has a "flat fmld."

This defect has prevented the general use of the Stadia, or ^Micrometer
^vires, as a method of measuring distances without a chain, as the two
horizontal hairs that arc u,yed, being in diftVent parts of the fitld of view,

can not, iu a majority of cases, be focused so as to be devoid of parallax,
and the slightest travelling of the wires in this operation will give an
erroneous result.

The evils of this defect were most forcibly brought to Mr. Heller ^and
the late Wm. J. Young's notice, when one of their best Transits failed to
define in tunnel work, from loss of light, from tliis cause, and they both
endeavoied, to within a short time of AIl'. Young's death, to remedy it,
trying all the known formulas of almost all the opticians in the country,
but without any good results.

In the Telescope of this instrument these evils are entirely removed, by
the employnrcnt of a new eye-piece, and advantage has been taken of
the improvements that Optics have made in the last few years, in the
curvatures and arrangements of the lenses that compose it ; and the test
referred to above, of focusing an object in the centre of the held of
View, and then bringing the same object; to the edge, and it still remain-
ing in sharp focas, can be done with this telescope, and the object shows
no tinge of prismatic color, showing that both chronuiLic and spherical
aberration have been removed.

The advantages of this improved Telescope are : a clear and sharply de-
fined Held of view ; a held of view so Hat tiiat the cross hairs are without
parallax iu every part of it, and micrometer hairs or Stadia can be used
with favorable results.

The wliole effective power of the object glass being used and none of
the light lost, work can be commenced earlier in the morning and contin-
ued later in the afternoon than is usual. This, in the winter season, is

.!!!

rif

i

iff

c

May 5t]i, 1871.]

120

[Heller and l>riglitlcy.

\

no slight matter to the enghiecr, and lastly, there is no straining of the
eyes in sighting.

The spider's web, by reason of its fineness, is the only article liitlierto
used for cross liairs, yet in use tisese have been attended with some diffi-
culties : first, the spider's web is hygrometric, or is alfectcd by the hu-
inidity of tiie atmosphere — when exposed to dampness lengtheinng, aud of
course throwing the line of coJlimation from its true place. This defect
is more serious in the Engineer's Levelling Instrument than in the
Transit, instances being known where the line of collimation has altered
two or thi-ee times in the course of ten hours, by reason of atmospheric
changes, and of coui'se ai]y observations taken at those times would be
defective ; lastly, the spider's web being a transparent and not an opaque
substance, in some positions it is impossible to see the hairs at all— this
is more especially the case wlien sighting in Lhe direction of tha sun ;

that is, an easterly course in the forenoon^ or westerly in the after-
noon.

To remedy tljis defect, platina cross hairs j Jy^ of an inch in thickness,
or as iine as spider's web, are substituted ; these being opaque, and not
transparent, in sighting in the direction of the sun are still visible, and
any atmospheric changes, dampness, &g., do not alfect them. We believe
that we are the first ones, in this country who have di-awn wire so thin,
and the only ones who have made any practical use of Dr. Wollayton's
experiment. The platina hairs are invaluable in Mining and Tunneling
^Instruments, that aj-e .so constantly exposed to damjmess, and bein
opaquCj no reflector to illuniinate the cross wires is re(iuired.

To prevent the stifincss of working of the leveling, tangent and other
screws in cold weather, which arises from the congealing of the grease
tliat is used in lubricating them, no oil is used upon the screws of this
instrument, but they are lubricated with pure plumbngo.

By a simple arrangement of the clamps on the axle of our complete
Transits, we make them also answer the purpose of a pair of Compass

sights, for taking offsets at right angk;s to the telescope.

From the above, it wull be seen. that this instrument has the following
improvements OA^er the ordinary Transit : — 1. A simple, secure and steady
method of attaching and detaching from the tripod, being the only long-
centre transit made that detaches as easily as a sliort centre. 2. An im-
porta.ut decrease of weight, without decrease of size, and an increase of
steadiness. 3. AH the working parts of the tangent screw, &c., brought
within the plates, making the instrument more compact. 4. An improved
tangent screw, telescope, cross hairs and tripod head. 5. A pair of
siglits for taking ofi'sets ; and G. .A new metliod of lubricating the
screws.

i

»ii

May 5th, 1S7I.]

121

[Chase.

■1;

On ilie relation ;?/ i'/ic Auroras to gravitatikg CURRE2^TS.

By Pli^^y Earle Chase.

ill

^'

{Ueadhefore the Am.erican PTdlosopliical Society, 2Iay Wi, 1871.)

Prof. Loomis's observations of the number of Auroras in each niontli
of 18G9 and lSTO(Amer. Jour, of Science, 3d S., i, 809), are specially
noteworthy, both because of the careful accuracy of the observer, and
because tliey are the first published observations which furnish satisfac-
tory data for an approximate determination of the laws of auroral dis-
tribution.

If the auroras are, as is now generally believed, luminous manifesta.
tions of terrestrial magnetism, it seems reasonable to look to them for
some additional evidence upon the question of the relation between mag-
netic and rravitatinfT currents. Messrs. Baxendell and Bloxam have al-
ready pointed out some resemblances between hyctal and magnetic curves,
(see ProG. A. P. S., x, 8G8) and if analogous resemblances can be traced
between hyetal and auroral curves, they Avill be interesting and suggestive.

I have not found the similarity between the annual distribution of rain-
falls and of auroras, sufficiently striking to impress any one who has not
made a special study of the causes of resemblance and dilTeren.ee. But,
as I have repeatedly urged, currents are subject to an iTicreased number
of disguising disturbances, in proportion to the sluggishness of their mo-
tion, and the time which is consequently required for their formation or
change. We may very reasonably look for analogies between tlie daily
and the annual auroral or magnetic curves, of a character for which we
could hope to find no parallel in wind, rain, or ocean-current curves.

If we desire, therefore, to find evirlcncc of the joint inlluencc of solar
expansion and gravitating equilibrium, we should look where it is most
likely to be found, and to the best of the observations which may be sup-
posed to be fairly comp;ir;ible. There are similar variations of sohir at-
titude, and consequently increasing and diminishing solar force, in the
day and in the year, but the effects of these variations upon the precipita-
tion of vapor, arc more likely to be shown in their greatest simplicity, by
the means of observations at different hours of the day than at different
seasons of the year. I know of no published observations of this char-
acter at x^ew Haven, but there arc some extending over a long series of
years, at Pluladelpbia a,ud at Greenwich, the curves at each station indi-
cating minima of rainfall at noon and midnight, and maxima in the
morning and evening. The difference of longitude between Philadelphia
and New Haven being less than 2^-°, it is not likely tliat there is any
mnterial diffej-ence in the daily rain-curves at the two places.

In order to make the curves fairly comparable, both in regard to the
times and the magnitudes of deviation, I treated the auroral observations
in the same manner as those of rainfall (Proc. • A. P. S., x, 526). Both
in the uiaguotic and in the hyetal phenomena, the greatest effects accom-
pany the grt-atest atmospheric changes. But in the magnetic disturb-

r

A, r. S. — VOL. XII~P

i

-n

■ vrrrx ^viA-j u^ fvj

I .

!

1

V

, I

i!

Chase]

122

[May 5Ui,1871

anccs the principal maxima occur in the spring of the year and the
morning of the day, while thcgenei-al evaporation is increasing, whereas,
in the daily rains at Pliiladelphia, the principal maximum occurs in the
afternoon, when evaporation is diminishing. I have, therefore, compared
the midwinter ordinate of the auroral with the noon ordinate of the rain
curve, and the midsummer auroral with tlie midniglit hyctal ordinate.

The auroral observations and the normal ordinates of the accompanying
curves, are given in the following table. I prcF;nme no one will doubt
that the condensation of vapor, which is represented by the rain curve, is
occasioned by the simple operation of gravitation in blending currents of
different temperatures, and 1 sec no reason for postulating any different
law for the development of electricity and magnetism in the aurora.

f

■4

Comparative Table of Auroras and KaiirAills.

^

69

o

January ... .32
February . . .31

March 41

April 44

May 36

June 31

88

90

94

98

103

107

100

109

108

100

103

101

cc

0

91

1

91

2

93

3

98

4

10-")

5

110

G

113

7

113

8

113

9

109

10

105

11

102

s

p o

July

38

Aug list

34

September . .43
October.. ., .38
November . .27

! December. . .30

o

B

100
101
103
105
107
100
103
100
95
91

89
87

o

m

12

13
14
15
IG
17
18

19
30

21

33
23

• 05

103
106
109

108
104
98
93
87
85
87
90
91

V

m

rfl

*

.Tune IGtli, 1871.] 1^3 [Chase.

Winds of EuKorE.

By Pliny Eaele Chase.

[I^ead before tJie American F Alios op Idea I Society^ June 16, 1871.)
lu my desire to give proper weight to considerations wiiicli favor the
hypothesis of normal cyclonic currents, I stated in a recent communica-
tion to the Society (March 17, 1871), as one of the admitted facts, ^'that
most of the European winds are cyclonic."

Further study has satisfied me that this admission is altogether too lib-
eral, and that, although a majority of the European winds are cyclonic,
the majority is not a large one. The daily weather maps of the French
** Bulletin International," and the Quarterly Weather Reports of the
British Meteorological Office for 18G9, seem to show conclusively that in
France and Great Britain, anticyclonic are nearly as frequent as cyclonic
currents, and that it is onlyhy a discussion of continuous records that the
prevailing cyclonism, such as is indicated in the following table, can be
demonstrated. '

I have deduced the average direction of the winds from the tables in
Coffin's '* Winds of the Northern Hemisphere." Those marked (C) were
computed by Prof. Coffin ; the others were obtained by combining,
with some regard to weight, the observations which he records for the
respective districts.

Mean Direction of Eukopean Winds.

Ireland, (3 stations) N. 86^50' W.

England (C) S. m

Scotland, (C) *' 62 *'

Sweden, (C) " 50 **

Horway, (1 station) ..../... '* 80 59 ''

Denmark, (C) '^ 0^ "

Denmark, Norway and Sweden '* G2 56 "

Russia . . : " 53 21 "

*' and lltingaiy, (C) N. 87 **

Prussia -.. S. 73 36 "

Germany, (C) " 76 "**

'' Southern, (C) . '* 82 4 "

Austria " 64 49 *'

Holland and Belgium *' 79 13 "

France and Netherlands, (C) '* 88 "

France, '"C) " 83 50 '^

Switzerland K. 56 54 "

Italy " 26 43 '*

On the Xokmal Position of the Tidal Ellipsoid.

By Pliny Earle Chase.

{Read before the American PkilosopMcal Society^ June 16, 1871.)

The inferences of Laplnce, that for certain depths, and of Airy, that for
all depths, on a globe covered with a sea of uniform depth and without

m

r

'[

H'

Chase.]

124

[June IGth, 1871,

friction, it sliould hfd loio water under the moon, rest on the assumption
that dr is so slight (see Mec. Celeste 337 iv, 337 iv, 342, 2177, &c., j that
it may be neglected, in order to satisfy equations which would otherwise
be impossible of integration. It is true that the radial coordinate of
the tide wave, is insignificant in comparison with the coordinates in lati-
tude and longitude, but the cause of that insignificance is not immediate-
ly evident, and I can see no reason for omitting, in tidal discussions, any
term which would be important in the discussion of planetary motions.
I presume the following postulates will be readily granted.

I. If the earth had no axial rotation, the tide would be one of equilib-
rium, with high water under the moon.

II. If rotation were to commence after the establishment of the equi-
librium tide, the tidal ellipsoid would be thrown forward in the direction

of rotation.

III. If the water flowed with such velocity as to be self-sustained, the
centrifugal balancing the centripetal force, it would be low water under

the moon.

As neither the first nor the third of these conditions is true, it would
seem reasonable to infer that the tidal crest should be at some point inter-
mediate between the lunar meridian and the lunar astronomical horizon.
The second postulate favors this inference, provided there is any force,
other than friction, -which would tend to set back the crest of the third

postulate.

Such forces, it seems to me, exist in the cohesive attraction and incom-
pressibility of the water, and the rigidity of the earth, all of which tend
to shorten the radius vector and increase the velocity of every particle
dm, in two of the quadrants, and to lengthen the radius and diminish the
velocity, in the alternate quadrants. These successive increments and de-
crements of velocity terminate at the octants, thus tending to produce
low water three hours before, and high water three hours after, the moon

passes the meridian.

Airy (Mo. Notices, li. A. S., April 13, 18GG), gives a dingram to show,
from the position of the points at which zero horizontal currents become
pl-as or minus, currents, that it must be low water under the moon. I am
unable to reconcile his hypotheses, respecting the direction and velocity
of the currents, with actual tidal observations, but even if they are cor-
rect, I think we should look to the total action of the moon, rather than
to the flow of water at particular points. The water falls in the entire
quadrants immediately following, and rises througliout the quadrants im-
mediately preceding the meridian of hig]i water. Would not this contin-
uous action be best sustained if the moon were on the great circle 450W.
of the crest and 450E. of the trough of the tidal wave, as Kewton sug-
gested in his Principia, B. I., Prop. GO, Cor. 30?

-H

\

111

wL'i!' ^

•

:»

■J

June, 1871J

125

(Lesley.

*

Note on an Apparent Violation of iJie Law of Jlegular Progressive De~

hititminisaiion of the American Coal Beds Coming East.

By J. P. Lesley.

*

;i

ir

{Read before the American Thiloso'phical Society^ June, 1871.)

In the course of a Geological survey of certain lands in Somerset County,
Pennsylvania, it appeared that the beds of coal existing at Ursina held
much less volatile matter than was expected. Tlie gas coals of West-
moreland County, which come east as far as Connellsville, only thirty
miles west of Ursina (see accompanying map), hold between 30 and 40
per cent, of volatile matters. Three analyses show the Ursina coals to
have but 17 per cent., while a fourth gives 23 per cent. This puts the
Somerset County coals into the semi-bituminous class. Yet the specimens
were taken from gangways, a good many years old, and several himdred feet
from the outcrop, under high hill cover, at a point on the western border of
the First Bitnmhions Coal Basin of Pennsylvania, near the ]\[aryland and
VirginiaState line. More properly we should say that the Ursina coals lie in
the second synclinal of the First Basin. For the Negro ^Mountain Anticlinal
comes up from Virginia and splits the First Basin into two in Pennsyl-
vania. The mountain dies down at Castleman's River ; but the anti-
clinal axis runs on northward. The First Basin is similarly split into
two, east of Johnstown, by the Viaduct Anticlinal, which may or may
not be an actual prolongation of that of Negro Mountain.

To make the situation understood, the following extracts from my re-
port to the owners of the property will suffice. The accompanying map
shows the Backbone of the Alleghany passing by Altoona. This is the
eastern edge of the First Bituminous Coal Basin. The two long parallel
mountains between Ursina ai^l Connellsville enclose the Second Bitumin-
ous Coal Basin of Penusylvania. The Third, Fourth, and Fifth lie west
of it, and the Sixth occupies the northwest corner of the map ; no moun-
tains separating the last four.

Figs. 1 and 3 will suffice to show the topographical character of the

country, and how the areas of the almost horizontal coal beds have been

cut out into patterns, as if with a jig-saw, leaving outcrop edges around

all the hillsides, at which gangways enter, and from the mouths of these

shntes depend.

Figs. 8 and 4 give vertical sections of the coal measures made with

Becker's Barometer ; and Figs. 5 and G show longitudinal Vertical sections

of the hills.

Special surveys like this have more than a commercial value : they
reveal, sometimes very unexpectedly, new truths for men of science. It
is an advantai^e to have them placed on record for common use. Too
many of the collected facts of science are annually lost for want of pub-
licatiou.

The property surveyed in this instance, lies in my old tramping and
camping ground of 1840, during the fifth year of the State Geological

!U

< -I

\

/

H

#

T-t?sloy.]

126

[June,

■I >

'r

I

Survey. The repoi't wliicli Mr. James T. Ilodge and myself made to Mr.
n. I). Rogers, Cliief of the Survey, may be found recorded in the Fifth
Annua! Report (1841), pages 80-92, which I will here recapitulate in the
descending order of the beds, for convenience of comparison.

'The Pittsburgli bed, I, has been eroded from the whole country between
the Alleghany Mountain and Chestnut Ridge (at Conuelisvillc and
Blairsville) except two hill tops ; one, near Salisbury, and the other near
Ligonier. It is possible also that a third exception may be discovered in
the high hill country south of Johnstown, where a conspicuous bench
runs along the hilltops for several miles.

Lvnestone, 20 feet below I, 6 feet thick in the Ligonier Basin.

Coal bed II, 50 feet below I, 3 feet thick in the Ligonier Basin ; 1 foot
thick in the Salisbury Basin.

Goal bed G, 100 feet below H, IJ feet thick in the Salisbury Basin; en-
circles tlie highest hilltops in the Ursina Basin with a conspicuous bench.
Fort Hill is not quite high enough to have it.

Bed Shales between G and F.

Coal bed F, 90 feet below G ; generally small ; but 4 feet thick in the
Salisbury BasUi. It forms the high terrace of the Fort Hill.

Mahoninix Sandi'ock.

Coal bed E, "Upper Freeport," 50 feet below F ; 3 feet thick, on 2 feet
of Limestone (over it Shales with ore-balls) in Ursina Basin ; 3 feet thick,
on 5 feet of Limestone in the Salisbury Basin.

Goal bed I), "Lower Frcex)0L-t," GO feet below E, 6 feet thick in Ursina
Basin ; 4 feet, further north; over 10 feet of Sandstone with ore balls, in
two beds, 7 feet asunder, 11 inches in all. This ore ball horison is very
extensive north and south of t!ie River.

Goal bed C, 20 feet below D, 2^ to 4 feet thick.

Coal bed B, oO feet below C on Cox's Creek, 40 on Laurel Hill Creek
(N. Fork), and GO at Confluence ; 4 feet thick over 8 feet of Limestone on
the river ; 1|- feet thick over 4 feet of Limestone on the Xorth Fork.
Twenty feet above B lie 15 feet of Shales, etc., containing ore balls, oil
Spring Run, below Pinkerton's Bend of the river.

Goal bed, 22 feet below Limestone, on west bank of Ciistleman's river,
\ mile above Zook's run ford, and on North Fork at old salt boring ;
cariies 5 feet of Shale containing 1 foot of ore balls.

Goal bed A, 70 feet below B; 22 inches thick, at Shroff's Bridge over
Castleman's river.

Conglomerate ; 30 feet below A ; the interval being massive Sandstone.

Such was the general scheme of the Coal measures made out during'-
the old survey, and, however subsequently modified, it has been of in-
calculable value in all subsequent special, and private investigations.
It was a very successful attempt to reduce to system the heterogeneous
mass of details collected from all parts of the Bituminous Coal Region
of western Pennsylvania outside, or to the east, of the Monongahela River
Upi)er Coal Beds, and of the Alleghany River Lower Coal Beds. It was

-A

f

mm^

U4r^w.^-

Aw^^rc^-^™— f

:_. _-"*3T'

#

Jl

1871.]

127

[Lesley

ill

A MAP

Showing the Geoc/raphlcal Fielations of the FlUshurgh and Baltimore C.

C. and I. Co.^s Lands to the siirroimding county.

\i

i

n

91

r-r

\t

J

«

Lesley.]

128

[June,

Fill

I I

by tbe collation of these three generalizations, that the first knowledge
of tlie true order of the American Coal Measures was obtained, a starting
point and a basis for all tbe Western Surveys.

It was merely a sketch, however; done hastily, in a single season, and
with most inadequate means at our command. In pecuniary power the
party fell so low that one of our camps on the Korth Fork could not be

■t

moved, because the whole party could not raise, amongst them all, 37^
cents to pay a farmer's bill for potatoes. A messenger Avas dispatched to
.Hanna's at the Turkey-foot, now Contluence, with a faint hope of receiv-
ing from the Chief in Philadelphia a remittance. Happily a letter was.
lying in the Post office which relieved our embarrassments.

Every subsequent private survey has revealed both the general accuracy
and the special inaccuracies of the summary statement of the Fifth
Annual Report ; and there is work for competent local geologists for a
long time to come, tracing the principal members of the column, observ-
ing their variations, intercalating the more insignificant deposits, and
discovering their sudden, and local, and valuable expansions. We know
but little yet of the true nature of the genetic relationships of coal, car-
bonate of lime, and carbonate of iron. But we know that they hold some
curiously Axed relationships of the highest economical importance.
Every special survey, therefore, should be published, in the hope of taking
another step towards a complete understanding of that subject.

It is with this view that I append a special description of a property
recently surveyed, stretching for five miles along the Korth Foi-k of the
Youghiogheny. Tlie North Fork is tbe Laurel Hill Creek of the Fifth
Annual Report. Its mouth and that of Castleman's river makes the
Turkey Foot at Confiuence. Ursina is a new village one mile up the
Fork. The new Baltimore and Pittsburgh Railway is constructed up the
south side of the Fork past Ursina, where its grade is, 00 feet above water
level. It then passes (by a tunnel) through the hills, and continues its
course eastward up the Korth bank oi Castleman's River. Ursina is 8G
miles hy railroad from Pittsburgh, and 348 from Baltimore. There are
G436 acres in this property, and its greatest width of two miles carries it
across the centre of the Coal Basin so as to include both dips ; which,
hoM^ever, arc very gentle, nowhere exceeding 5° and seldom as liigli as l^.
There is also a gentle lowering of the central belt or axis of the basin
southwestward towards the Turkey foot, which has determined its strik-
ingly romantic topography. The hills of nearly horizontal coal measures
are 300 to 400 feet high, and the coal beds, etc., pass through them from
valley to valley crop])ing out in nearly horizontal lines along their sides
and around their ends. Easier conditions for mining cannot beiniaf>-ined.
And it is in a country quite destitute of faults. ^

The coal beds belong to the upper part of the Lower Coal System.

■ - -<■«

1S7I.]

129

[Lesley,

Uie Sic Foot Coal Bed outcrops ou the hill-side, over the town of
Ursiiia, at an elevation of about 300 feet above the water. Its outcrop
keeps at about this height along the east flank of the Kldge (Mindcr^s
and Sander's hill) for two miles, up the west bank of the JSTorth Fork.
It crops out on both sides of :Minder's creek, as high up as the forks,
where ic gets under the water of the run, which descends rapidly.

^r

ft

Fig. 1.— A MA.P SIIOWI^^G THE ATiEAS OCCUriED I5Y THE SiX FoOT

Coal Bed in the hilt-s Nokth of Uksina.

r- -■— H^-

j^-. ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ r^

\n. J3a.j.HaiK

Z'/j, m'iUj

In the northern part of the property it outcrops on both sides of tho

I

I

I''
!1

A. F. S. — VOL. XII~Q

m

4

iH

, h

-ii]

'■ I

!f1J

1

III

.1

I

Lesley.]

130

[June,

Korth Fork, at the same elevation of about 300 feet above water-level,
for a distance of two and a half (2}) miles ;

—Along both sides of Smith's creek, for 1^ miles :

— Along both sides of Brown's creek, for 1:^ miles :

— Along both sides of May's creek, for ;] mile :

— Along both sides of bandei''s creek, for ^ mile :

So that the outcrop of this bed has a run of over ten (10) miles.

In this Northern part of the property it lies also in the best manner

possible for mining ; falling gently in all directions towards a central

point, or mining location, between the mouths of Smitli's and Brown's

creeks. The arrows on the map (fig. 1) show the direction of the fall of

the coal. The two parallel lines (from 11 R northeastward) show the

central axis of the basin, or deepest part of the coal bed, falling towards
S. 30O + A¥.

Down tins central axis the coal bed falls at the rate of less than 1° ;
or, between GO and 70 feet in the mile. The fall from the Krieger bank
to the Rose bank, W. S. W. is 150 feet in a little less than a mile. The
ri^e from the Rose bank to the crop, up May's creek, northward, is 130
feet in a little over a mile.

The following openings on this Six Foot Bed have
been worked for several years : —

The Krieger Bank one mile up Brown's creek, soutli
side ; 9 feet above the water-bed ; runs in 109 yards, E.
lOO S. ; coal mined from several small breasts, not many
tons altogether. It is represented in Fig. 7.

Top Rocks : Black Slate 2 feet.

Crumbly Shale 0 feet.

Top coal, with tliree half inch slates 1 foot.

Main coal, solid bench, with occasional w^edgcs

of drab clay 5 feet.

Slate not taken up 8 inches.

Bottom co:il, bench not taken up 9 inches.

The following analysis by Mr. r'ersifor Frazer, Jun., shows a superior

percentage of solid carbon with a minimum of ash, sulphur and
water : —

Carbon (coke) V9.25

Volatile substances 1 7. 1 7

Ash 3.11

Sulphur 0.47

Water 0.55

(or 'l of the whole.)

It is therefore not a gas coal.)

an extraordinarly pure coal.)

Total 100.55 : in which the sulphur has been

considered exclusively a constituent of the Ash. The specimen (No. 1)
was obtained from the Krieger bank, some distance back in the gangway,
and midway of the bed, between the roof and floor, and may be considered
a fair specimen of wdiat the bed will do when mined on a large scale.

187J.]

131

[Lesley.

A MAP SHOWIKG THE TorOGRAFiriCAL ClIAKACTER OF THE SoUTilEHN
TAKT 01-^ THE LaKDS OF THE FiTTSBUIlG A?sD BaLTI:\IOKE CoAL,

Coke a^d iKo^q- Co^rPA^'Y.

{Reduced by PhotolUhograpliy .)

hv

f.

\

I

P

Lesley,]

132

[Jane,

The ash is remarkably small — the coke very great (nearly ^ths of the
wliole) ; and the gas no higher than in Broad Top Coal ; water and
sulphur about half of one per cent. The small percentage of water in
these coals is remarkable.

The coal is friable and comes out much crumbled, and will not bear

r

transpoitation, but makes a very nice grey even coke. The crumbling
shale roof will call for very careful mining and abundant timbering to
keep the mine in good order. But while timber is abundant in the

L

district, longwall mining will let the roof fall behind and afford plenty of
slate stuff for gobbing up, where needful.

The Rose Bankj opi>osite the mouth of Brown's creek, facing south,
220 feet above water ; shows six feet face of coal, very good, except that
there are a few thin layers of slate in the top bench of 13 inches, as be-
fore ; a coal of 8 inches is said to underlie the bed, as before ; roof, again,
crundjly shale ; coal very friable ; it is roughly coked in the open air in
front of the mine and makes good coke.

TJie KuJh

an Banlc is opposite to the Rose, on the west side of the
valley ; and an old mine is J mile farther west on the same outcrop, and
at the same level, 35 feet above the bed of Sander's run. Both are fallen
in. The people say that the bed exhibited the same character as on
Brown's creek.

The bed has not been fully opened at the southern end of the property,
but I see no reason why it should differ in quality or thickness here from
where it is opened further up the Korth Fork, since it runs with remark-
able regularity of thickness and character from the Krieger bank (up
Brown's creek), to the Kulilman bank and the old opening on Sander's
creek, a distance of two miles.

Geologicallyj this bed is tlie contiimation southward, into Maryland, of
one of the Freeport beds of the Alleghany Biver System, having a wide
extension through western Pennsylvania, and usually furnishing the best
of coal. For want of special instrumental surveys in the country south
of the Concmaugh, it is not now possible to assert positively to which of
these two Alleghany River Coal beds the Six-foot coal, in southern
Somerset county, answers best. Our best guide, the great lime rock
which underlies the upx^er of these beds, thins out as it approaches the
Allegheny Mountain and the Maryland line. But as we have a dark
Shale, with limestone nodules, overlying our Six-foot coal bed, and be-
neath what is probably the Mahoning Sandrock, in the same position as
that occupied by the upper of the two Allegheny River beds, the Six-foot
coal would seem to be the lower.

If a colliery wore established at the mouth of Brown's creek, and
three incline planes ascended the ends of Younkin's hill, Menard's hill,
and Hyatt's hill, then from the tops of these three planes, three main
entries would have three unbroken coal fields straight before them, with
a rising coal ; in Youngkin's hill rising eastward ; in Menard's hill rising
northeastward, north northeastward and northward ; and in Hyatt's hill
rising west northwestward. The point is a rare one for large mining
operations-

\

>

1S71.]

133

I.Lcslej''

Vertical Sections of TnE Coal jMeasukes tjear TJrsina, Somer

SET COUKTY, PeNNSYLYAKIA, UY FjiANKLIN PlATT, Jr.

{Reduced hy Phoiolithogra'pliy .)

t\

\

\

)

w

%S5

Ursine

/%?/

^ <ai^iX4lvyuj,S'*Jh

Slatij CaaJ ,

"icoj^

3^

^-

Jl^^

^ — --^

SixTcot C^al ^/>:^

^E&ia

r«5

aa ffUJ'ri 11"

JK.tl(aitiung

too

5

Ji7-

Mso

ifO0

HU! thit

%S0'

2CC-

J^

4

J^07XiTrs-ft Co

To.

y

^*4 T- > ■ ^ -L-^^ _. t-'

■7

^'c^^

^

C

tfrc

'-'ai!XU^\ —

i^off.

The gangway entering Menard's hill (at or near the present Kose bank),
would command an unbroken area of one and three quarter square miles

^ \

^

■^

E^

ii!

1 I

' :

-

:!

S!

^s;

I-esley.] ^o4: {June,

of tlic Six-foot bed, containing the r/ross amount of 10,500,000 tons,

and by tresseling May's and Brown's creeks at tbcir
upper parts where the bed is near their water level, mining
might be carried forward into the Ramsbcrgerand Krieger

area, and add 1,500,000 tons,

making in all 12,000,000 tons,

commanded by this gangway.

The gangway at the end of Hyatt's hill, would command 2,250,000 tons,
The gangway at the end of Youngkin's hill vrould com-
mand 1,500,000 tons.

The amount of coal to be reached in the easiest possible way, and con-
centrated at one coal depot at the mouth of Brown's creek, is therefore
evidently larger than the necessities of the largest collieries for an entire
generation.

When the main gangways become inconveniently long, their air- ways
along the outcrop will afford the most convenient outlets for slack and
■waste ; and new gangways can enter any where, because the drainage of
the mine will be perfect.

A fine colliery can also be established at the forks of Minder's Creek,
a mile and a half above its junction with the Xorth fork. Here the Six
Foot bed strikes the water level of the run; gangways may be driven in
horizontally west, northwest, north, northeast, and east, commanding an
entire square mile of coal lands, or six million tons of coal. The trararoad
for such a colliery will be, say 1^ miles long, with a grade of 10, or be-
tween 00 and 100 feet to the mile, which maybe lessened by judicious
arrangements. This point has another advantage : it will permit all the
Sander's Hill coal to come out, down grade. I never saw a more beauti-
ful situation for a first class cohiery on bituminous coal. Kor do I know
of a better coal on which to establish a great coke trade.

The Turkey-foot is likely to become a second Jolnistown, in the way
of iron works, occupying precisely the same position, geograpliical and
geological, upon the Baltimore and Pittsburgh through railway line, which
Johnstown occupies on the Philadelphia and Pittsburg through raihvay
line, as the map on page 3 will show ; and just as Blairsville and Con-
nellsvillc occupy precisely analogous situations, geological and geograph-
ical, to each other. At Ursina, the coal beds, iron ores, limestones-
occur in the hills in the same way that they do at Johnstown ; the
hills arc of the same shape; and the minerals lie at the same angles
with the horizon, and at similar heights above water level. At
both places the Pitt'sburgh and Green county coal beds are absont, swept
from the tops of the highest hills. At both places the blue carbonate
iron ore of Ko. XI. underlies the conglomerate on the Hank of the moun-
tain near the top. And as Johnstown gets brown hematite ores from the
limestone valleys of the Juniata, and fossil ore from Frankstown, and
Lake Superior ore from Cleveland, to mix with the ores under the coal
beds in its hills, so Ursina can get fossil ore and brown hematite from

f

f

3871.]

135

[Lesley

I

!

f

IIorizo:ntal Sections of the Coat. jMkasukes is'ear Uksina, Somer

SET County, Pa., by FrantvLin Platt, Jr.

I

r*K

{Bcdiiced hy PlioioJitliogra'pliy.

r

^

• Jj,y/J j-^*pii/l^

Vf:

Ji^fj;} 'upur^/o Aj>)-}X>^

*

>i^^^j wv.^nvvc

s:

\

i

^i-ix-^ riu-nod^

^

■p^'v 4") '>v^^q. ifo-a

^

i

I

5^

t.

^ >{^x-t><^ rvcp Yf'y

-i;

t

-^^

* i &

O-

'f

n

s

I

ii

fl

11

Lesley.]

136

[Juno,

Cumberland and otlier points on the Potomac, and the same Lake Supe-
rior ores via Pittsburgli, to mix witli same iron ores which he in the hill-
sides of Castleman's river and Laurel Hill Creek.

Two other coal beds range through the i:)roperty. The Kittanning bed
100 feet lower down the hillsides than the six foot; and the Ferriferous
bed, nearly at water level. Two other small scams of coal exist in the

r ■•

hill tops, belonging to the middle or upper part of the Barren Measures,
under the Pittsburg!) Coal Bed.

7he Kiitaiihing Bed averages 2j feet, and is best opened at Ursina.
This bed outcrops all around the hill sides, north of Ursina ; but goes
beneath w^ater level of Minder's Creek, two-thirds of a mile up from its
mouth. It outcrops all the way up tlie North fork.

A thirty inch coal bed is oi^ened at the Rush Bank, 1^ miles above
the mouth of Brown's Creek, (fig. 1), 25 feet above the water of the
North fork (Laurel Mill Creek). This bed underlies the Six Foot about
100 feet, and is the Kittanning coal bed. It shows 00 inches of good
hard coal, with 15 inches over it of shite mixed with thin coal seams,
and a roof of soft shales, requiring careful timbering. Its floor is a mas-
sive sandrock, w^ithout a particle of intervening fireclay. The bed has only
been stripped at its outcrop ; but yields cubical masses of very firm coal.

This is the usual Cauuel and Block Coal bed of the country.

The Ferriferous Bedy (so called, not because it carries, itself, any
iron, but because it always comes into the measures just above a lime-
stone which is called ferriferous because it carries on its u])per surface
the great iron ore deposite of north west Pennsylvania, especially in Clar-
ion, Venango and Armstrong Counties), averages 2^ feet, and lies just
above water level at Ursina. It sinks beneath water level going west,
down tlie fork. It has been Oi^ened, also on the property, at the mouth of
May's Creek, and at the mouth of Brown's Creek, on botli banks of the
creek. On the north bank 35 inches of coal is visible, with a 3 inch slate
parting. On the south bank 20 inches of coal, 3 inches slate, 5 inches of
coal; roof, 3 feet of iron-stained shales supporting 30 or 40 feet of sand-
stone; floor, hard slate ; under this, a thick bed of flre-clay, contaiuin
xiodules of iron ore; under this, limestone, said to be 18 inches thick.

The bed is not thick, but its quaHty of coal is good; the mineral com-
ing out in solid blocks, and apparently adapted for the iron manufacture.
Mr. Frazer has made two analyses of it, with the following results :

rr
o

Volatile matters and w'ater

AVater akme.

Fixed carbon

Ashes

No. 1.
17.13
0.30

08.30

No. 3.

i7.r^

68 87
14.00

Mean.

17.135

08.535
14.34

14.08

Another specimen taken from the Widows Croll'sbank, near the mouth
of Brown's Creek, shows the same character of this lower coal, above the
limestone; equally free from water and sulpliur as the Six Foot bed; mor

)

gas (equal to Alleghany Mountain Coal in this particular); a large quan-
tity of ash; and 3-5ths of it coke.

^S^i.J 13^ [Lesley.

^J^^^^ •••• 0.55

Volatile subytcances (Gas) 21.90

Carbon (Coke) . . . .^, 00.98

Suli:)hur (in ash) 0.62

■^s^i 15.95

The }^^rriforon.s coal is opened also at Iho hend of Smitli's Creek, on
both banks of the creek. On the souUi side a i^iie of half bnrned lime,
shows how strongly ferrnginons the limestone stratnm is. On the north
side, the ontcrop exposed by digging, shows two feet of coah the ni)per
foot slaty; 1 foot of clay, with nodules of ore, in the roof; ovei^ this
again 1 foot of sandstone ; then one foot of dark slate ; then a heavy
sandstone. Tlie iloor is a thick bed of fireclay, the uDpcr 3 or 4 feet bein r
closely filled with nodules of iron ore.

At the base of the Ramsbergerllill and on Eogg's Creek, at the north
end of the property, this coal, and another bed 30 feet below it, (see sec-
tioji fig. 4), apparently 24 to 3G inches thick each, and mixed with
slate, occnr again, and no lower measured arc visible anywhere. The
conglomerate at the base of the coal measures is just underneath diem ;
the same which may be seen in the gap below Conliuence, making a great
arch in the mountain.

The fire clay under tlie ferriferous coal is usually about 4 feet thick.

The Ferriferous Limestone shows about 18 inches thick on the east bank
of the North fork, but its general thickness I do not know. It is thesame
deposit which on the Slippery-rock and Beaver River country furnishes
the soda-limG for the Pittsburgh works. On Smith's creek the farmers
have tried to burn this limestone for use, but failed, and the calcined
fragments sliow that it contains much iron, and may, therefore, make
a superior blast furnace flux.

This bed underlies the country about water level, and is very con-
sistent with tlie character given above. At Ursina it shows tlie same
slate-parting near the bottom, and the same underlying beds of fire
clay, iron ore and limestone. It will probably play an important part
in t])e future development of the Turkey foot district.

A small (2 iuuh) layer of nodules of iron ore occurs about 65 feet
above water level at Ursina, but it is, of course, worthless at this point.

^

I

A small coal bed outcrops 127 feet above the Six Foot bed, over the
Krieger bank.

One of the limestones of the upper part of the barren measures comes
in, between 475 and 525 feet above water level, near the summit of jMin-
der's Hill, and extends through the hill tops of the property west of
the Korth fork. It is at least 5 feet thick, and ferruginous.

About 100 feet below this limestone is a tliin coal vein, very slaty, and
good for nothing. There is also a bed of coal-slate 40 feet under this up-
per limestone.

A. P. S. — VOL. xn—B.

I i

.;

Lesley.]

138

[June, 1871

The analyses given above arc important. They oppose the law of pro-
gressive hiliiviinuaiion westward of tlie coal beds.

That both the G foot and the 8 foot Ursina beds, situated at the western
limit of the 1st Bituminous coal basin, should have only 17 per cent, of
volatile inattcrs,^not more than the coals of the Broad Top Region,
lying one Inuidred miles to the east of Ursina,— is truly remarkable.
The Broad Top beds are tilted and faulted abundantly. T]ie Somerset
County beds are almost perfectly undisturbed. The coal in one gangway
showed 22 per cent, of volatile substances. But even this is no greater
than the coals of the summit of the Alleghany Mountain, and the coals of
the Cumberland Coal Kegion.

No proper scheme of the rates of dehitinntnuaiion to caRting, and to
disturbance, can be obtained until all the analyses of each bed in the
series of Coal Measures shall be tabulated apart from the rest. We may
then expect to learn something also respecting the intluence of spccitic
vegetation upon the percentages of coke and gas.

But in the outset one source of error must be guarded against. The
specimens of coal from which the forei^oing analyses were made, were ob-
ta^incd in the M-alls of old gangways. It is possible that they had been
long enough exposed to the air to lose some of their hydro-carbons by
spontaneous evaporation. The rate at which this goes on in coal mined
and exposed in heaps, is variously stated by those who have investiga-
ted the subject:.

Dr. Bichters made a recent communication to a German Journal, in
which he states his opinion, that the weathering of coal depends upon
its ability to absorb oxygen, converting the hydro-carbons into water
and carlionic acid. At a heat, say of 375^ F, only 5 or 6 per cent, of the
carbon accepts oxygen, tlie rest seems to show little or no disposition to
aftine with it. The process is apparently dependent upon the per cent-
age of hydrogen. But with coal, cold, or at ordinary temperature, the
oxydation is so slow as to be imperceptible, even after exposure for an
entire year, lie says moisture has no accelerating effect, unless pyrites
is present in quantity. Pure coal, heaped up for nine months or a year,
un])rotected by the weather and not allowed to become heated, is changed
no more than it would be in a perfectly dry place.

TIerr Grundmann, of Tarnowitz, on the other hand, has recently pub-
lished elaborate experiments proving the effects of exposure on bitumin-
ous coals to be most serious. Coal which he exposed for nine months,
\o':ii fifty per cent, of its value as fuel. His conclusions excited such doubts,
that his experiments were repeated, in connection with llerr Varrentrapp,
of Brunswick, who proved, by laboratory experiments, that oxydation
took place at common temperatures. Three months sufliced to rob coal,
kept uniformly at 140o C. (284^ F.) of all its Carbon, a heat less than
that evolved in coal lieaps exposed to the air.

Grundmann proved tha't the decomposition was the same in the middle
of the heap as at the surface, and reached its maximum about the third
or fourth week ; that half of the oxygen was absorbed during the iirst
fourteen days ; that a coal poor in oxygen absorbs it most rapidly ; that
moisture is an important condition ; that coals making, when freshly
mined, a firm, coherent coke of good quality, make, after even only
eleven days' exposure, either no coherent coke at all, or coherent coke of
quite inferior quality. For gas purposes also, the coal is greatly injured.

It is evident that these facts have an important bearing on the value of
the analyses given above.

/

."S

^>

■V'

^

•-

^

u

F^>-H^

f

Juno 16,1871.]

139

[Lesley

Note on tJie Titaniferous Iron Ore Belt, near GreenshorOj North

Carolina.

By J. P. Lesley.

{Bead before tlie American riiilosopMcal Society, June 16, 1871),
I embrace the oporfcuiiity to exhibit the strncture of this interesting
ore belt, afforded by a recent survey of the lauds through which it runs
for thirty miles; lands owned or leased, by an association of gentlemen,
known as the North CaroMna Centre Iron and Manufacturing Company
of Philadelphia, of which Mr. Thomas Graham is President.

The photolithographed cuts at my command, were reduced in fac sim-
ile, from my drawings, by Bien's process, and are sufficiently clear to ex-

FlG. 1.

r r ^ £ ^^r/^W ^z^o m,

" '" " ^^U'-^i/vn J.:ijy ,^\/,r

'' 7B^/t7r,jare ^ ^^j „^;j^r

TA^i^^^/^M^ ---^j/ TTuJa

^^-^^^^^ 55-J.

ff

**

Libit so much of the geology of the country as is necessary to the right
classification of the ores in question. The chief interest winch the ores

^1

Lesley.]

140

[June l(j,

|[ ,{

li

have for us, comes from the analyses given below. But the relations which
these ores bear to other ores of similar compositioiij cannot be under-
stood without a general description of the district.

Fig. 1, will inform those who are not acqiiainted with American geo-
graphy, of the geographical relationship of the Greensboro district to the
Atlantic sea-board and to the Blue Ridge Range of Primary mountains.

The two Triassic belts containing coal appear on this map ; the eastern
including thoRichmoml Coal Basin and that of Deep River ; the western
that of Dan River, prolonged northward across the James River below
Lynchburg, and originally connected with the continuous out-spread of
the Trias in Maryland, Pennsylvania, Kew Jersey, and the Connecticut
Valley.

Fig. 2 gives, on a larger scale, the position of the ore-belt in Guilford
and Rockingham Counties, K. C, and the radiation of railways, already
running, or under survey, from Greensboro.

Fig. 2.

ZDanytlU .

y

1

>

> '■

i

1871.]

141

[Lesley

^

>

> '

Fig. 3 is a special map of the ore-belt wliere it passes the Tuscarora
forges, and has been most thoroughly tested. Here is the Sergeant shaft.
The accompanying section will be of use, as it furnishes a carefuhy
measured example of the numerous hill slopes which comi>ose the surface
of the country.

Hi

f^n-Dx

^■•iv;--

S^jdi-LD^ {L-ta !K; iVic/l

|J.?0 •loafr^t

t5ot*

i^ia ,f i t

iti ]•''

Figs. 4 and 5 continue the mapping of the ore-belt on to the head-waters
of Deep River, to the southwest ; and to the northeast as far as the Haw
River. The general straightness of the outcrop for lo miles, and more, is
remarkable. Tlic whole length surveyed w^as about 30 miles.

This part of North Carolina is occupied by some of the oldest rocks
known ; the same rocks which hold the iron ore-beds of Harford Co.>
Md., and Chester Co., Pa., and tlie gold ores of Georgia, North Car^ina,
Virginia, and Canada. The gold mines of Guilford Co., N. C, are opened
alongside of, and not more than ten or twelve miles distant from, the
Tuscarora iron ore-belt. See figure 2 above. Both the gold and iron
range continuously with the exception of one break, in Xew Jersey,
from Quebec, in Canada, to ^Montgomery, in Alabama. The gold
and iron-bearing rocks are : granites, gneissoid sandstones, and mica slates,
all very much weathered and decomposed ; and that to a depth of many

IJ
I' I?

Lesley.]

142

[June 16,

Pig. 4.

.■'^t ri^At/fW-

fTwW^W

Lewir ^ix^Lt

T

i

1871.]

143

[Lesley.

riG. 5.

>

r

y

i

TuscaroraPo'r^s .

k(R4^'')HacuV-

on/i Grcf 71^^

^ooA'^

■J -. v?t-

AKiG-arnW*

(Pfo trait J

./W^^ki'jP

inv4J:

•"-■V^j, A Dav/f .

■' tijfA^ Ck^rltt.

^^.VY-JAom NYlltam.

"WUiflin U^

Keiioh t.5u/aJtrul. ...

Sujar. iTfQcUtf .

!

|i I

I

■!i!

Leslc5%]

144

[Jane IfJ,

fathoms beneath the present surface. The solid granites are decoDiposed
least ; the mica slates most. All contain iron, which has becnporoxidiscd
and hydratcd, in the process of decomposition of the whole formation,
and dyes t'he country soil with a deep red tint. Or, more properly
speaking, the surface of the whole country is streaked with belts of red
aud gi'ay soil, following the outcrops of the more weathered and the less
weathered beds. But, even in the gray belts, the solid granite, or gneiss,
or sand-rock, seldom appears at the surface, although outcrops of them
can here and there bo found ; and a number of these outcrops are desig-
nated upon the map, close to, and on each side of, the Tuscarora ore-belt
outcrop. The surface of the country, therefore, is a smooth, soft, undu-
lating plain, broken by gentle vales, the bottoms of which are never more
than one hundred feet below the plaiii, and commonly not more than half
that depth. The roads show how readily the rock soil absorbs water and .
dries off again. The soft, mouldered condition of all the rock strata, to
depths of 50 or 100 feet, is tliereforc easily understood. But the rapidity
with which the erosion of the land goes on is surprising. An old bridge,
built a century ago, over a stream near the Quaker Meeting House, and
of course several feet above the water, is now buried to a depth of G feet
beneath the surface of its little meado^v.

Two general results follow from this universal ancient rainwater decom-
position of the surface of the country, to the depth of the dcei:) valley drain-
age plane : — ■,

1. All sulphur, &c., has been washed out of tlie ore- beds, leaving the
ore remarkably pure. Whether the ore-beds, when followed down for
hundreds of feet or yards into the earthy will be found to keep a notable
percentage of sulphur, cannot now be known. But, whatever sulphur
was originally combined Avith the iron, has been removed from the upper
parts of the beds.

2. The decomposition of tlie rock strata, which inclose the ore-beds,
has weakened them so that extra care must be bestowed upon all shafts
and tunnels sunk or dLiven to win the ore, to keep them safe for mining
operations. When the more solid strata, at various depths beneath the
surface, arc reached, mining operations Avill be as simple and safe as in
any other region.

The hills being never more than about one liundred feet above the valley-
bottoms, the ore-beds can be mined by horizontal self-draining adits, or
tunnels, only at well selected points. But, seeing that the ore-beds run
in straight lines for long distances, a large quaniity of ore can be thus
taken out, for some years to come.

The belt of outcrop of ore-bearing rocks has a uniform breadth of sev-
eral hundred yards, and, I believe, a uniform dip towards the northwest,
01^ north-northwest ; although there are appearances (to be stated in de-
tail hereafter) which would lead tlie casual spectator to conclude that the
outcrop was double, and not single ; that is, that the belt is synclinal the
■..re-beds descending from the southeast side, downwards, northwestward
to a certain depth, and then rising again to the surface. But the general

?

■%

1S71.]

145

[Lesley

considerations against this view are so strong, that I reject it without nnxcli
hesitation ; and I give my reasons furtlier on.

T]io mapj however, shows another ore belt running nearly parallel with
the Tuscarora Forge Outcrop, and at a distance of three miles from it.
This is called the Highfleld, or Shaw Outcrop. Beyond the Tlav/ River
these two belts approach each other, and are believed to unite in Kocking-
ham County. This, and other considerations, make it almost certain that
the Shaw belt is the Xorthwost outcrop of a synclinal basin, three miles
wide, and that the Tuscarora Belt is the Southeast outcrop. If so, the
Tuscarora ore beds descend, witli a 'NAY. dip, to a depth of a mile beneath
the surface, and then rise again as the ore bods at Higlifiokl and Shaw's ;
thus :

Fig. 6.

■\-i ■-

yj

:'i

'Hiui.

UM

i|

ji":

^m^^

.V-

'H

\

1'' %\\l\

■i'ijilil

/

ii'ii'

■Si.

!■';:...■

'iin(||i(';''VJ

Many of the outcropping ore-beds are, to all appearance, vertical; others
dip irregularly, some southeast, others northwest ; some steeply, others
gently. But all these are extremely local variations, confined to a few
feet or yards of depth, and will not invalidate the general uniformity of
uorthwest dip of the whole Tuscarora Belt, and southeast dip of the

whole Sliaw Belt.

The foUowimz section of beds on (fig. 7) the Widow McCutsten plantation
(1-i— 15 miles), in a trench cut at right angles to the outcrop, 50 feet long,
and froiu 4 to 8 feet deep, vvill illustrate these irregularities :—

Fig. 7.

Similar irregularities are noticeable everywhere. The miners say that
the pitch of the outcrop of the ore-bed worked in the Sergeant Tunnel and
Shaft (9) Avas southeast for some distance down, after which it took its
regular uorthwest di]), such as it now has in the shaft and tunnel at a

A. P. S.— VOL. XII

\' I

Lesley.]

U()

[June IG,

depth of 100 feet. Besides which, there arc in fact two bods cut in this
shaft-tunnel, the smaller bed undcrlyino- the other, and with a dip which
would carry the two beds together at some distance beneath the floor.

Ttf.S'

hjirUplgti cf ifw ScLtacajrU: Sh^fj- gncC'^i in tict.

^

Vf'A.iiM Ssr&n gj- Ih rVg^-^jT ,

These ore-beds are not ore-veins ; for they do not cut througli the rocks
crosswise. They have no well defined walls ; they have no selvages ; there
is no gangue-rock dilferent from the rocks on each side ; they have, there-
fore, not been formed in crevices subsequently in a later age after the
uptilting of the formation ; they have neither been ejected volcanically
from below, nor inHlfcrated aqueously from above, nor secreted chemically
from the wall rocks ; in a word they are not at all "veins." On the con-
trary they are "beds ;" beds deposited, like the rest of the rocks, in water ;
deposited in the same age with the rocks which hold them ; arc in fact
rock dcposites highly charged with iron ; and they differ from the rest of
the rocks of the formation in no respect, excepting this : that they are
more TdghUj chargGd with iron. I can best represent the facts of' the case
by an ideal diagram of the rocks of the ore^belt in their original horizontal
position, somewhat thus:

Fig. 9.

In fact all our primary (magnetic and other) iron-ore beds obey this law

T

y

>

;i ,

s

i\

1

1871. 3

147

[Lesley

They are merely certain strata consisting more or less completely of per-
oxide of iron, with more or less intermixtare of mud and sand,
which, when crystalized, fell into the shape of feldspar, hornblende, mica,

quartz, etc., etc.

To show that this is not mere theory, but actual fact, I compare here

the section of magnetic iron^ore beds worked out on Durham Creek,
near Easton, Pennsylvania, a map and sections of which can be seen
by reference to W. Brookes part of the Ne%y Jersey Geological Re-
port, by Prof. Cook, 1868, page 832, and given in Fig. 10.

^ -^

Fig. 10.

It follows then from the above mentioned facts :

1 That the Numher of Ore beds in such a formation cannot ba
stated. A large number of rock strata will become ore-beds locally. But
there will always be a particular part of the formation more generally
and extensively charged with great quantities (or a high percentage) of
iron than the rest. In other words, the iron of the formation as a whole
is concentrated along one or more lines. This is evidently the case with
the Tuscarora Ore Belt, as is shown by the almost perfect straightness of
the outcrop of the Sergeant Shaft ore-bed, where its outcrop has been
opened for half a mile northeast of the shaft. There are two prmcipal
beds cropping out on the Teague plantation, at the (southwest end ot the
belt), both vertical, and about 300 yards asunder, thus : Fig. 11.

Fig. 11.

C'Yc^uJX

6VZ.

ore

I

Aiiliotis Gru'r^

^■■-^ SccJU lOo Ho^h k /^ci-Wc. SiLiiiC^ Ilu s.^re.

Another instance occurs on the Trueblood plantation (13 miles), where
the two ore-beds appear to be only about 300 yards apart at their outcrops,
and seem to dip different ways, which I explahi by reference to the false
surface-dip of the Sergeant Shaft bed. The Trueblood section is as
follows; *

nj

1-. '

II

Lesley.]

148

[Jaiieir.,

Fig. 12.

ilojvL cfl ilf-uu cru^M]^! g^iQ^ tio^W^ a\J^. orwM^di fCa^'jtf^

Scale

! Utch to (CO yards'
T-r-T-i-rn ' ^

en \

Lp oj- ore beii in- tunnel ahcat
0-r^ ohsccr^^ ty ntixps af rati' .

Fig. 12a,

afors, m (he
TO'l'^i uo'C.,'

A^ K^

'^X

\''/

y^

**^ ^b HrH

^^

(/0£th{c

^Tt-

co'H. OH ■ytt^h

^

But nowhere do tlie number and irregularity of the ore-beds show
more plainly than in tlie openings made on the Shaw range, and Sltaw
plantation, as will be seen by the plans and seetions of the old revolutionary
diggings, and the late shafts and trial trenches opened on that property, as
given in Fig. 13, etc., further on.

On this Sliaw Plantation, where three or four distinct and parallel beds
have been opened, as seen in the preceding chart and diagrams, the di-
rection of the bed clianges somewhat, being K. 30^ to 35° E., at the "Old
Eevolutionary Pits," and more nearly easterly at the openings recently
made by the Company. The wliole course tested amounts to over half
a mile. The beds at the outcrops vary in thickness from one to six feet.
At g" the ore-bed is full G feet across solid ore— a very green, chloritic,
mica-slate rock-ore. In this run of 800 yards, there are, apparently,
two Imndi^ed tliousand tons- above icater -levels in the one six-foot bed.

?

ISTi.j

149

[Lesley

The ore is good. The outcrop runs along tlie top of a hill, about one
hundred feet above the bottom of the Haw Kiver Valley, and can be
tunnelled into at that depth. There are apparent variations in the

1

Figs. 13, 14, 15, IG.

SyA OilaMj^^-yp^-^^-^ ^^

yn^ Qv^iw.

Cp,

0

(JllCl^J [JiCXA/J'uVMnrL

''.',-^t7 :V1'.

hcdiffit's 3 !4 rroM k om-Ixavj frz-m fi^moja^4 fofo^RM -

Or t' fill oJ: I.

Cre-pits^C, d,

e,

jraftyt^^i^ a*^ (fu^ U</{£ ^ "^'^ •?- ^

S u.^^ ^Laa. , a^-^i Hu^ Vi^ fcif^ i ^,

dip, some of.tlie outcrops seemhig to be vertical, whereas the principal
part of the mining has already shown a distinct dip towards the south-
east and south. In pit /of the chart, the dip seems to be scarcely 40O.

i\n

i

II

■ I '

Lesley.]

150

[June 16,

The Higlifield outcrop shows that the ore beds lie in this Shaw range,
at a much gentler angle than in the Tuscarora range ; thus : —

Fig. 14.

Higi^CeUf^s j Pi^nt^LtUn.

Qulcno^oiA-

'"■^

CulcA^jD dorvH

ore.

3, ^

c.

ya i/cCs.

e.

The distribution of pieces of ore over wide sections of the outcrop of
the ore-belt, is a notable thing'. Along certain narrow lines inside
the belt, are to be seen multitudes of fragments lying on the ground,
which have been left behind when the rest of the rock has been mould-
ered and washed away. And sometimes the.^e fragments are a foot or
more in diameter, althoogh commonly .^mailer. Formerly, the ground
was abundantly covered with them, but they were the first ore sought
and used, and most of the large pieces and patches have disappeared du-
ring the war years of 1861, '2, '8 and '4.

Large pieces on the surface are the best evidence we can possess (in the
case of unexplored ground) that the beds are of a good size, for they
have come from those portions of the beds (a,b, c, &c., in tlie accompa-
nying diagram, (hg.lS), which have been destroyed in the general lowering
of the surface of tlie country. There is no reason why the parts of the
beds left luider the present surface (a^ b', c', &c.), should not yield as
large masses as the x>arts a, b, c, which have been mouldered away.

2. The Size of the Ore Beds varies as much as tlieir imnibei". They con-
sist of strings of lens-shaped masses, continually enlarging and contract-
ing in thickness, from a fiiw inches to six and eight feet. The principal
beds may be safely estimated on an average of four feet, or 176,000 tons
to the mile, with an averajj^e breasting of GO feet above water level. It is
needless to say that an equal amount would exist beneath water-level,
for every sixty feet sunk on the bed.

3. The Quality/ of the Ore. — It belongs to the family of the Primary Ores.
It is very similar to the New Jersey ores which are so extensively

1

^

1871.3

151

[LcF^ley.

%

mined for the furnaces on the Lehigh river. It ivS a mixture of magnetic
crystals, and specular plates of sesquioxide of iron, with quartz, feldspar
and mica, in a thousand varying proportions. Sometimes the bed will be

PlCr. 15.

^/'* ^''> 6^''"'

composed of heavy, tight, massive magnetite (or titaniferous magnetite),
with very little quartz, &c. At other times the bed will be composed of
a loose, half-decomposed mica slate, or gneiss rock,, full of scattered crys-
tals of magnetic iron.

The ore is, in fact, a decomposible gneiss rock^ with a varying pev cent-
age of titaniferous magnetic and specular irou orCj sometimes forming
half the mass, and sometimes constituting almost the whole of it.

The compact varieties will yield between 50 and GO i>er cent, of pure
iron, as in the case of the ore now being mined in the Sergeant Shaft,
near the Forges. Mr. Fraz-er's analysis of this ore is as follows :

Magnetic oxide 73.56 [Iron 53.37 p. c]

Titanic acid 18,^8 [Titanium G.G2 p. c.J

Re^^iduum of quartz, c^c 13. SG— with a trace of sulphur.

The specimen was obtained from the tunnel, a hiuidred feet beneath
the surface, and shows an intimate mixture of crystalline titanic ore,
magnesiau mica, a little hornblende, a little labradorite, and a little spec-
ular iron.

This kind is difficult to smelt i)i the high-stack blast-furnace ; but

makes the best iron in the world when smelted in the Catalan forgo ; and
is of great value for the linhig of puddling furnaces. It serves the same
purpose ns the Lake Superior ore, which is brought in large quantities to
Pittsburgiij and the suri'ounding district of Eastern Ohio and Western
Pennsylvania, for lining puddling fui-naces, and to mix \wi\X\ poorer ores
in the blast-furnaces. Formerly^ in the E. Ohio Mahoning district, t!ie
mixture was : one-fourth Lake Superior, one-half coal measure ore, and
one-fourth mill cinders. Since tbe organization of the Lake Superior
Iron Ore Trade, sufficient quantities come forward to enable the iron
masters to mix one-half Lake Superior. The Sharon Furnace on the Leaver
river runs wholly upon Block Coal and Lake Superior Ore. The titan-
iferous magnetic ores of the Ottawa region, in Canada, are idso brought
by a long and expensive route to Pittsburgh, to mix with Pennsylvania

I:

I

I I

[.

|i r

I. I

'3

m

Lesley.]

152

[June 10,

ores. These Canada ores are of the same geological age, and of tJie same
mineval character, as tlic Tiiscarora ores under consideration.

Trial of the ore has been made by Mr. l^atlian Rowland, at his works
in Kensington, Philadelphia. FIa'c tons were forwarded for trial as lining
to puddling furnaces. Mr. Rowland expressed his opinion that it stood
up three times as long as the Champlain ore, which he uses for that pur-
pose. The difference is due to the superior compactness of titanifcrous
magnetite over that of j^ure crystalline magnetite.

I have said above, that the Tuscarora ores are essentially like those of
Northern New Jersey. I referred to their age, situation, consistency,
and general composition. But they have a peculiarity ; they hold a no-
table per ccntage of titanic acid. The New Jersey ores seldom possess
this pr02^crty, and, in any case, only in a low degree. Tlie Canada ores,
and the ores of South Sweden, hold large quantities of titanic acid ; even
as much, sometimes, as between 30 and 40 per cent. A small — a very
minute — quantity of titanium in pig-iron is believed to add greatly to
its value, increasing its hardness and firmness, and its ability to stand
wear. The Canadian ores were introduced to the Pittsbur^rh iron works
for tliis end. But, seeing that almost all the titanic acid in any iron ore
passes off in the slag, leaving a very small quantity to unite watli the pig
metal (sometimes in scattered crystals), it follows, that ores, whieli liave
an excessive quantity of titanic acid, cannot afford a high per ccntage of
pig metal. It is much better to have an extra 30 per cent, of silex and
alumina, potash or lime, in tlie ore, than an extra 20 per cent, of titanic
'acid ; for these will make the ore easy to smelt, whereas the titanic acid
makes it diillcult to smelt ; requiring a much higher heat in the stack to
decompose tlian does oxide of iron.

There is no question that titanium in iron ore favors the production
of iron peculiarly suited to conversion into steel. The English steel trade
has always largely depended on Swedish iron ; and I believe that tlie
titaniferous ores of the United States (and tJiey are far from abundant,)
will become annually more and more valuable, on account of the increas-
ing demand for the bestiron-for steel-making purposes. If these ores were
smelted in large quantities in first-class anthracite furnaces, I do not
think this particular value would appear ; the small Swedisli blast fur-
nace must be used, or the Catalan forge.

Although the action of titanium upon iron in metallurgy is an obscure
subject, something is known of it by actual experience.

J. H. Alexander, of Baltimore, in his rei^ort on tiic Manufacture of
Iron, gives analyses of certain cinders, among which is one obtained in
the smelting of a primary iron ore, containing, he says, 11 (eleven) per
cent, titanic acid: the analysis is as follows: —

Silica 31.1 Oxide of Titanium. _ 9.0

IMagnesia 34.2 Protox. manganese 4.4

Lime 14.1 Protox. Iron 1.0

Alumina 8.9

The ore, he says, was hard to smelt, and the pig-iron liard to work, hut
when properly made, is peculiarly adapted to the manufacture of steel.

/

T

i

t

1871.]

153

[Lesley

(

r

up

The explanation is as follows:— Titanic acid \yill not combine readily
with either the acid or the alkaline oxides. In every ton of ore (holding
10 per cent, of it) 320 lbs. of this neutral stuff exists, or (1-^ tons of ore
to 1 ton of iron) 330 lbs. of it in every ton of iron. If only 1-10 of this
(or 33 lbs.) remains in the furnace, the gradual accumulation blocks it
The only solvent of it are the double silicates of iron and lime, or
ii'on and alumina and lime, or iron aud potash and lime, &c. To make
these double silicates, ^ve must 10118(6 a good deal of iron. But the one
object of the blast furnace is to save all the irou, and the best cinder is
that which has no iron left in it, all the iron of the burden having gone
down into the hearth as pure metal (with enough carbon to make it fusi-
ble). The Catalan forge, on the contrary, wastes iron, and its cinders
are so rich in iron, that they are often worked over again ; hence, titanic
acid is carried ofl^, and does not obstruct the liearth. The forgo fire is,
therefore, the best to reduce titanifei-ous iron ores. But the blast fur-
nace can smelt them also, if the heat be kept low, and some of the iron
be allowed to go to waste in the cinders, to carry olT the titanic acid and
cinder mass. The object then, must be to make the utmost quantity of
the most fusible cinder; tliereforc, a blast furnace running on titaniferous
ores, should not be fluxed by pure limestone, pure clay, or puresand^ but
with ferruginous clay, ferruginous slate, or ferruginous limestone. These
liuxes will dissolve titanic acid at a low heat. To get gray pig iron, the
cinder must be abundant ; to get white forge metal, but little flux is need-
ed in comparison, the ore itself being wasted to form cinder. This tcJiile
iron loitlia large amount of carbon in it, is just the metal from which
German steel is manufactured. A liigh stack and a small hearth, like the
Styrian furnaces, and ferruginous fluxes, are the best for titaniferous ores,

Osborne says (page 475), that Mr. Henderson writes him that the Nor-
wegian ores are successfully used at Norton, England, on a plan invented
by John Player, although they contain (by one anlaysis)

Titanic acid , - . '^^•^^

Perox", iron.
Protox. iron

92. G3 \ ^< r-q

28.U0r'^-^^

]\ra;i-nesia . - . 4. ^^]

rVlumina. -^-^^ i.

Silica
Protox. maufr

o

.43 f

.50

7.81

100.35

being smelted in small furnaces with lOOO^P temperature of blast, 2
tons of coal to ^ tons of ore, 15 cwt. of limestone, 10 cwt. basalt rock.

"The iron becomes titanized, and is found to be exceedingly strong,
and is used in Europe for armor plates, commanding ilirec times tJie price
of ordinary pig iron. The tensile strength of the resulting wrought
iron, when puddled, is about 53} tons to the square inch. There is very
little carbon in the pig-metal produced, and being almost steel, in puddling
it requires but half the time of ordinary pig metal."

M'UchaV s Steel is a titanic iron^ with the peculiarity of being sufficiently
hard after being heated red hot and forged, not to require tempering.

'l\

^'1

A. P, S-— VOL. XII — T

'i ;

t^1

pn

i

l!

I^^^'Icy.] 1<^4 [June 16,

but is comparatively brittle. Its color is not white, but has a tinge of
straw color light brown.

The UghUr and looser 'Darieiies of the Tuscarora ores have a lower per
centa,ge of iron in them, but will work more kindly in the blast-furnace.
I had Mr. Frazer make mc an analysis of a piece of outcrop ore from the
Ilighfield plantation. It gave: Magnetic oxide, 44.53 rmetallic iron,
33.25]. These varieties make equally good iron, and iron as well adapted
to the manufacture of steel.

The hard and soft varieties of ore occur often within a few hundred
yards of each other ; as, for example, on the Widow McCristcn's planta-
tion (14-15 miles), where the soft outcrops are seen on the hill opposite
the house, and the hard ore lies in lai'ge chunks on the hill, south of the
swamp. T append Dr. Genth's analysis of specimens from the two places,
made at my request :

1. Massive ore from Mrs. McCristen's Plantatiou. The analysis was
so unexpected in its character, that Dr. Genth suspected some error, and
repeated it, but with the same result. The small amount of titanium
shows the varying nature of the deposits. The percentage of iron is also
low for this kind of ore :

Ii'on 33.97p.c.

Titanium . i,GO [-=3.63 p. c. titanic acid.]

Ratio of Titanium to Iron 1 : 21.34.

9, Soft micacious ore from the same locality. The high per centagc of
both iron and titanium in this ore was equally unexpected, and was very
gratifying ; for it will be seen from fig. 7, on page 17, that there is a
total breadth of ten feet to this outcrop, in a space of twenty-seven. If
any of the beds uiiite descending, the yield of ore will be great.

Iron 43.47 p. c.

Titanium 9.79 [=16.00 p. c. of titanic acid.]

Ratio of Titanium to Iron.. . 1 : 4.44.

It is made known by the Canadian geologists that the constituents of
some of these primary ores arc combined in such a way as to approximate
the rock to a diorite, or gToen-stone trap. Kow, such a rock is seen on
several of the Company's leases ; and especially on the Shaw, and other
plantations two miles southeast of it. Sometimes the ore-bed itself be-
come dioritic.

It will not be amiss to add other analysis of these Ores.

Ore Analysis, hy F. A. Gentli, in 1868.

Magnetic oxide 79.78 == iron 57.77

Titanic acid 12.08

Oxide manganese . . 0.38

Chrome oxide (trace of Vanadium) 0.33

Silicic acid 0, 75

Alumina. . . . , 4.63

Magnesia '2.04

Lime 0.13

1

>

1871.]

155

[Lesley.

1

i.

>

Ore Analysis, hy J. B. Britton^ June 3, 186S.

Iron (protoxide) iron 21.20 + (peroxide) 39.40

Oxygen, with the iron in said GO-GO

Mixed Sesquioxide, magnetic, &c

( Titanic Acid

( Containing other insokible matter. . . '.

Alumina - ■ •

Lime ■

Moisture - ■

No phosphorus^ and a doubtful trace of sulphur.

GO-GO

33.67

84.27

4.95
3.25

4.81

0.24

l.GG

KoTE.~I have changed the order and wording of this analysis, to suit
the others for comparison.

r

Ore Analysis hy O. Ellon BucJc, Wihningion, Del, Oct. 31, 1868.

Magnetic Oxide of iron 82.G8 [=^Iron 50.95]

Titanic Acid ■ • 8.72

Ox. mang. ..... . .0.42. Sesq. ox. chrom' 0.40 0.82

Silica 1.89

Alumina

Lime 0.17

Magnesia i.ZQ

3.93

AnoiJiei% June, 18G9.

Magnet ox. iron , 81.30

Titanic Acid 12-32

Ox. Man*:, and Ox. Chromium, and Sulphur

[^Iron 58. 52 J

traces.

S^

ilica

1.04

Alumina • • • 3.87

Lime 0.G4

Magnesia 0.49

No phosphorus

Moisture and loss . 0.34

Ore Analysis, ly A. A. Fesquct, I^ov. 12, 1868.

Metallic iron • j • • ■ '30.41

Titanic acid ■ ■ ^-^'^

Sesq. ox. Clu'om.. ■ ■ ■ -0-83 ) q^^j-

Sesq. ox. Manganese 0.12 )

Silica.. ■•■• l-'iO

Alum. . ^'00

Magncs 2-02

Lime • ■ • • • • 0.75

No trace of Sulphur.
A mere trace of Phosphorus.
Analysis made by pulverizing several hand specimens, and mixing them

iirsl, to obtain an avcrau'o retiLdt.

i

Slil

I -

h

Ie

Ir

Lesley.]

156

[June IG,

79.14

Ore Analysis, hy A. A. Msqioet, July G, 18G9.

Specimen highly magnctiCj and almost without moisture.

Metallic iron in combination with 57.30

Oxygen (calculated for peroxide) 21.84

Titanic Acid ' 13.74

Silica : 0.53

Alumina , 4. 50

Magnes 0. 54

Lime 0.73

Scsq. Mang O.GO

Trace of Chromium.

Ko sulphur ; no phosphorus.

Ochre Analysis, by A. FesquH, 18G9.

Sesqui. ox. Iron 19.43 [containing met. iron 13.60]

Silica.. : 34.13

Alumina 33.31

Water, &c., &c 13.34

I

In this ochre, wliich forms largo beds on the outcrops of the more fer-
ruginous feldspathic rocks, one has a superior tlux for any heavy burden
ore, especially for a close titaniferous ore. The oclire must, become a fluid
double silicate, without robbing the ore, and will carry olf the titanic acid
in excess.

One of the coUvStituent elements of the whole formation is Ochre, in
beds of various sizes. What the exact geological relationship of these
ochre beds to the magnetic ore-beds is, I do not know. But the ochre
outcrops seem to be always in the immediate vicinity of the ore-beds.
The largest exhibition of ochro wdiich I saw is on the J. Somcrs Planta-
tion on Brushy Creek. Here an ochre bed twenty feet thick rises, nearly
vertical, out of a gully in a hillside covered with small pieces of fine com-
pact ore.

■ Bar-iro7i Analysis, by A. A. Fesguet, April 4, 1870.
''The samples of iron bars which you gave me to analyze have the fol-
lowing composition :

Metallic iron [includes what iron is combined with oxygen] 99.38

Insoluble calcined substances, [Silica, &c] 0.15

Carbon [and oxygen ?] [by difference] \ 0.47

r

Also, a trace of Titanic acid. ■

100.00
"I would judge frorh the nature of the samples, and former analysis,
that the proportion 0.47 per cent, under head of Oarboii, &c., is too con-
siderable to be formed by Carbon alone, and comprises, very likely, caibon
and oxygen. Therefore I would judge that part of the impurities is from
oxide of iron, and the remainder from slag, which 1 have ascertained ex-
perimentally. In other words, the impurities are due to a highly basic
slag, which cannot be expelled or squeezed out by the hammer and the
roils."

Note. — The above bars wore rolled (fi-om blooms of IST. Carolina ore)
by Jas. Rowland & Co., not cut and i)ilcd.

7

1S7I.]

157

[Lcplcy.

JS'ortJi Carolina Blooms

into Steel hy the Martin'' s Process.

K

Tn January, 1871, Mr. xY. A. Fesquut assisted at the conversion of ten
tonsof North Carolina blooms into steel, at Cooper & Hewitt's Works,

Trenton, K. J.

The blooms were some of the first made at the Tnscarora Forge fires,

rou<,di and variable in size and quality, and wcigliing from 150 to 225 lbs.

Mr. Fesquet thus reports ;

The Siemens-Martin's Process consists in mixing steel scraps with pig
iron. The Carbon of the pig iron reduces the iron oxidized by the flames;
keeping watch, as it were, over it, and preventing the perpetually forming
oxide of iron from forming a cinder with the silica of the furnace

lining.

The charge being melted, it remains exposed to the flame until, and

even after, all the carbon is burned olY.

The exact moment is known by a series of samples being taken out,

hammered and bent, hot.

If the samples be red short, Franklinite iron is added to restore enough

carbon to remove the oxygen from the iron.

After one or two stirrings the metal is run into moulds.

The North Carolina blooms took the place of the steel scrap. The cast
iron used was West Cumberland (EnglisJi) pig, nearly free from sulphur
and phosphorus, and with enough silicon and carbon to fit it for Besse-
mer use.

At the moment of complete dccarburation a sample was taken. It was

slightly red short. An analysis showed that the red-shortness w^as due
to a minute proportion of oxide of iron and cinder, wdiich had not been
expelled because of the pasty condition of tlie decarburetted metal. Per-
centage of carbon less than 1-lOOOth part.
Franklinite was added; the metal became lluid, and was run into

moulds.

The ingots were sound, and presented large crystals, of a clean gray

color.

A sample from one "was perfectly mnlleable, without a trace of hot or

cold shortness, without a haw, and homogeneous to all appearances. The
large crystals were condensed under the hammer. The fracture was
not jagged, and resembled that of cast steel of some degree of condensa-
tion and hardness.

In a word, this steel was malleable, homogeneous and tough, like the

best steel produced in any other way.

Tried at the forge fire (hy the same workman), it seemed to bear more
heat for welding and hardening than wih the ordinary steel (with a cor-
responding proportion of carbon).

Less carbon is necessary in the case of titanium steel than in the case
of common steel, to arrive at the same hardness.

In the rolls, this steel manifested no difficulties, according to the testi-
mony of Mr. Slade of the Trenton Works.

Waste: Three operations, 14,153 lbs. of metal in all; waste, 13.5 percent.,

Juno IG, 1871, J

158

[Lesley.

oxccGding somewhat the waste wlieii steel scraps are used ; for the cinder
in the blooms has to be purged oil" In the i)rocess, and secondly, the almost
purely metallic titanifcrous bloom iron is much harder to melt than scrap
steel ; is longer exposed therefore to the flame, and therefore wastes more.
By adding pig metal this evil will fuid a remedy.

The peculiar qualities of this steel will no doubt be intensilied when its
own titanifcrous pig metal is used with its titanifcrous forge blooms.

A dose of Frauklinite may yet be necessary, Mr. Fesquet thinks it
acts by giving up cai-bon. He suggests, however, that possibly it acts
through manganese ; but as nearly all tlie manganese goes off in the slag,
ho thinks its peculiar use is to keep the cinder iluid, and taking the iron's
place in the cinder.

Stated Meeting^ July 21, 1871.-
Present, three members.

Mr. Chase in tlie Chair.

Secretary, Mr. Lesley

A pliotograpli of Dr. 0. Seidenstricker was received for tlie

rilbum.
Letters of envoy were received from the Sonlcenburg So-

ciety, at Frankfort, the I. Akad. Vienna, and the Society at

Eiga.

Letters of acknowledgment w'ere received from Dr. Bnnge,
ofGreiswald; Horr Tanner, of Leoben ; Dr. Eokitansky; the
ooL Bot. Soc.j Vienna; Mnnich. Observatory, and Cliicago

Acnrlcmy.

A letter was read from Mr. Putnam, of Salem, the conaid-

eratioii of wliicli. was postponed.

Donations for the Library were received from the E. S.,
Tasmania ; I. A., Vienna ; Z. B. S., Vienna ; Senk. S., Franli-
fort; E. Danisli S. ; E. Com. Gcol., Italy; Capt. Settimaimi ;
School of Mines, Pads; E. Ast., E. Geogr. and Cheni. SS., Lon-
don ; ISTatiire ; San Fernando Observatory ; Essex Listitute ;
Mass. Hist. S., Am. Antiq_. S., Camb. Mas. Com. Zooh, J. H.
TrnmbuU, Sill. Jour., Mrs. Willard, N. Y. L^^ceum, Fraidv.
Inst., Acad. IST. S., Coll. Pharmacy, Med. News, Dr. Enslien-
berger, Isaac Lea^ Peabody Inst., and Secretary Eobeson, of
Washington.

?

159

T

The death of Ih, Eugciiiiis Nuh}^, at Philadelphia, on the
Sd iust., aged about 83 years, ^vas announced by the Secre-
tary.

Mr. Chase coniniunicated a Kote on the Plnyial Indications
of the Metonic and Sun-spot Cycles.

Pendino- nominations '677 and G78 were read and balloted
for, and the folloAving named gentlemen declared duly elected
members of the Society:

Prof. Cleveland Abbe, Signal Ser., War Dcp't, Washington.

Mr. Benj. Che\y Tilghman, of Philadelphia.
And the meeting was adjourned.

Slated Meeting^ May 19,- 1871

1

Present 13 members.
Vice-President, Mr. Pbaley, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership w^ere received from Rev. Dr.
James ]\IcCosh, dated Princeton, N. J., May 4th, 1871 ; Prof.
E. B. Andrews, dated Columbus, Ohio, May 4, 1871, and Dr.
T. A. P. Barnard, dated Columbia College, N. Y., May 5, 1871.

A Photograph for the Album was received from Prof.
Ptochrig, of Cornell University.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of the Society's Publica-
tions were received from the R. Bavarian Academy, (27, 65 to
67; 75, 76, 81, 82) ; the Society of P. & N. 11. at Geneva, (XIIl,
3, 78 to 83^; the Physical Society at Berlin, (XIII, 3 ; 81, 82,)
the Boston N. H. S., (XIII, 3, XIY, 1, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,)
and the Library of Congress (XIV, I).

*T!ic report of this meeting Iiasbeen inaclvertautly misplaced.-

160

I

I
I

i

Letters of envoy Avere received from tlie Pliysical Society
of Berlin, and Dr. C. Nauniaun of Leipsig-

A letter was received from Mr. W. Barker, Engraver to tlie
U. S. Mint, presenting to the Catinet of the Society, a medal
of David Eittenhonse, after a bust in the possession of the
Society.

Donations for the Library were received from the Geologi-
eal Institute and Anthropological Society at Yienna^ the Physi-
cal Society at Berlin, Dr. Naumann, the Bavarian Academy,
the Zoological Garden at,Frankford, the ISTatural Ilistory'So-
ciety at Geneva, the London Meteorological Office and Board
of Trade, and Editors of Nature, the Essex Institute, Boston
Natural History Societ}^, American Oriental Society, Franklin
Institute, Medical News, Wilmington Institute, Mr. G. W.
Shafter of Savannafi, and Dr. Newberry.

The death of Sir John F. W. Ilcrschel, on the 12th inst.,
aged 79, was announced by the Secretary.

^

A specimen of the Jenny Jump variegated marl)]e of New
Jersey, was laid upon the table, and its geological character
was discussed by several of the members present.

The attention of th6 members was called to llerr Lauth's
recent memoir on the Gold Mine Map Papyrus of the age of
Seti L, and its interesting points described by the Secretary.

New nominations Nos. 677 and 678 were read.

On motion of Mr. Chase, tlie Meteorological Office at Wash-
ington was ordered to be placed on the list of correspondents
to receive the Proceedings.

On motion of Mr. Lesley, the American Institute of Civil
Engineers was placed on the list of correspondents to receive
a set of the Proceedings.

On motion, the thanks of the Society were tendered to Mr.

r

Barber, for liis beautiful present.
And the meeting was adjourned.

(i

"i

i i

JAN. 20, 1871.

PROC. AM. PKIL. SOC. XII. PLATE 1

iudian Sculptures on a roclt in Soutli Westcru Peuusylvanla.

^

«

i

^ I

I i

/

' 1

■ ? ^

.i

f_

^K "-^ ir;"-> ^',t:-- \-zi

»^^r

^^ -

-™^

h_-> I

%

"iM

..--■'-?i

'*,<--

wV

-^.

o-,*"

► .-v^

/

7i

■ Hi-?.*,.

^^i_

^^:..

x/^

».."

m

■ir'^S

■f

VbJ

/

>i^^

^'>

wi^

:^^

1 1

'S

r-^

=!^r

*v^

"^

W^^FS^

■ rfx '

/

15

.H J^<ibRr d^^ettt^wt^^oTU^e

^\

fllita-

p

M.-i^

■^'

.t'^

I J

*Vi F

-■si

^ 1/

► ^_-

^--1

*- 'j

^

'-S'

't

m-

-- >1

■i)

i9)

i_J T ^J

^z- =

^P^

i

%^.

'A

? V*'

"-.Tl

■''■:

■-H

73

^v

• -rv -■

'-3.-

i--'

"-y),-.

■;»-

j\fr^

^^''^^ ' A^r

'■^

ry^^-^

wa

.»-^^.

Liv1^^^^

^

6

I't

\ \%"

lL^

J -1

H /.

^^:''-^t'

5

w

.^,

^*-

rfe;

[4 ^

^

.;

_M.

V^

<,'

f>>:^'

.J i*i*^'''^i;;j

I.- ^ ■-.•.■■^..■■f\ vJ/

liT.

y^--

*J ''■■

k^-.

«^:*s

-^2i'

1 ■■%

[%'kv

\ x'^-

>? t...^ o

.V

rfll /

■T-Or-'

?;?

PIJ

\

■ /

feSii

*H* pj^

- H^J

r ^

i:^i^"\ '-

^-U

^^

T

;

.r>^

\y^y,%i

V.

)-:...^:/

.'. I'm'

i^^^^:^r

r\

■: : *

3

f

tp -:

y.^

-"-■ / J

t'.'

f ±'

v"'^

rs-;

^v-*-

^ -

rt

-\

L\\

53

^- *.

IJ,--

F '

/ /-

\ tj^^f'"-'-'^

\

V

\.

I '

;; ;

;

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. AND II.

\j \j' v/ \/ ^y

x/xy-'^-^^-''^-^^ '-^'

Pig. 1.

ii

2.

3.
4.

5.

- " 6.

" 7.
is where a
Fig. 8.
!).
10.
11.
12.
18.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

20.

21.

u
a

22,

Posterior surface of right Elumerus.

Anterior surface of left Humerus.

Section of left Humerus.

li " natural size.

Sectionof left Femur.
Anterior surface of right Femur.

Posterior surface of right Femur. The notch about the middle
slice was removed for microscopic preparations.
Section of left Radius .
Posterior surface of left Radius.
Posterior surface of right Radius.
Anterior surface of right Radius.
Section of left Ilium.
End of right Clavicle.
Posterior surface of right Ulna.
Anterior surface of righc Ulna.

Section of left Ulna.

" ^' natural size.

Posterior surface of right Fibula.

Posterior surface of left Tibia.

Anterior surface of right Tibia.

Section of Phalanx natural size.

Section of healthy Phalanx natural size inserted for com-

pai'ison. '

Fig 28. Vertebral end of spine of left Scapula.

*'' 24. Anterior surface of carpal end of right iladius enlarged. ^

N. B. All the drawings except where noted arc on a scale of ^
natural size.

the

¥

■i

i ■•

■j ^

II

^ -^

i

/

>

Hioto Lilh.bv UicXYhiih'^ KiieirK- IViiil- i\> U> .V m ['ark Vl.trt.

£■- J

A_ "OL^X

161

Stated Meeting, Aug. ISth^ 1871.
Present, two members.
Secretary, Mr. Trego, in the cliair.
riiotograplis were received from Prof. Max Miiller, of Ox-
ford, Eno-land, and from M. Stanislaus Julien, Membre de

V Institut, Paris.

A letter accepting membership was received from Prof.

Cleveland Abbe, dated Washington, D. C, July 24, 1871.
■ Letters of acknowledgment were received from the New

York City University (80).

Donations for the library were received from the Hungarian

Academy ; Ilerr K. Magey ; the Society at Moscow ; the Eus-
sian Academy ; Prussian Academy ; Geological Society and
Botanical Society of Berlin ; the Societies at Gottingen and
Bremen; the Geographical Society at Paris ; the London As-
tronomical Society and Meteorological Bureau; Editors of
Nature, Cornwell Polytechnical Society; Peabody Museum;
Essex Institute; Medical Sews ; and U. S. Department of En-
sin eers at Washington.

The death of Mr. Sidney G. Fisher, a member of the Society,
at his residence near Pising Sun, Philadelphia, July 25tb,
1871, in the 63d year of his age. was announced,

Mr. Cliase presented some tables of daily Rainfalls at the
Observatorio do Infante Don Luiz, Lisbon, from 1855 to 1870,
with some comparisons, indicating an opposition between the
lunar daily rains at Lisbon and Philadelphia, similar to the
one he had pointed out as existing between the solar daily
rains at the same stations.

And the aneeting was adjourned.

to

Stated Meetiiig Sept. l^th, 1871.

Present, two nicuibers.

Yice-President, Mr. Fraley, in the chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. B. C.
Ti]ghman, dated Philadelphia, Aug 1871.

Photographs for the Albnm were received from Prof. Geo.

A. r. S.-VOL. XII-U

T

Jl

i}

. ^ w^-.' -^-ff^T^^

tfL^'Akr-rnru

-^4-

hMMi

I

L

,

I if

.,1

r

■h I
p I

1G2

11. Cook and Col. M. J, Cohen, the hxtter sending a carte de
visite of the late Dr. Joseph I. Cohen, of Baltimore,

Letters of envoi were received from the Central Observa-
tory of Enssia, and the office of the Chief of the U. S. Engi-

neers at Washington.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of Publications of the
Society were received from the Knssian Central Observatory ;
the Leeds P. k L. Society, August 24 (xiv.i. 83, 84, 85,) ; the
Society of Antiquaries, London, August 26 (xiv. i. 83, 85);
the Society of Arts at Batavia, May 31, 1809 (xiii. 2, Proc.'
July, 1865); the Eadcliffe Observatory, August 10th, (83, 84,
85); the Geological Committee of Italy, at Florence, August
12 (Proc. vol. xi. 2); the Glasgow Philosophical Society,
August 10th (83, 84, 85): the Eegents of the New Yorl^ Uni-
versity, August 7 (Proc. vol. x, xi); the Boston Public Li-
brary, August 23 (86); Rhode Island Society for the enconr-

Geor2;ia Historical

Society, Savannah, August 24 (86); Wisconsin Historical
Society, Madison, August 25 (86^ : New York Historical

agement of Domestic Industry (86) ;

1

Society, New York, Septendier 1 (86); New Jersey Historical
Society, Newark, Sept. 1 (86); Essex Institute, Salem,
Mass., Sept. 2, 1871 (8()).

Donations for the Library were received from the Acade-
mies at St. Petersburg, Berlin and Bruxellcs ; the Societies at
Batavia and Eiga; Ilerr Yon Prauenfiejd, of Vienna; the
Geological Committee of Italy; Geographical Society in Paris ;
Zoological Society and Society of Antiquarians in London;
London Nature ; the Essex Institute ; Boston Natural History
Society ; E. 1. Society for the Encouragement of Domestic
Industry, at Providence; the American Journal of Science;
Mr. J. II. Trumbull ; the American Chemist; President Bar-
nard of Columbia College ; the Franklin Institute ; American
Journal Medical Science ; Journal of Pharmacy ; Penn Month-
ly ; and Dr. Eichard J. Dunglisou, of Philadelphia.

A communication for the Proceedings was received, entitled
" On the Pormation and Primitive Structure of the Solar Sys-
tem," by Professor Daniel Kirkwood, of Bloomington, Indiana.

And the meeting was adjourned.

)

»

J

^

■-x. .^K

Oct. 6. 1871. J

163

[KirkHOOcT

>

i

On the Formation and Pninitim Struciicre of the Solar System.

By PiiOFEssoR Daxiel Kirkwood.
{Read before the American Philosophical Society, Oct. 6, 1871.)
The developmeut of any bi-ancli of science is generally a slow and
gradual process. The obvious truths which suggested to Laplace his cele-
brated hypothesis of the solar system had been for ages well known to
astronomers ; but, as in the case of the earlier geological observations,
they had been regarded, without any just reason, as ultimate facts. So
now we have numerous results of observation in regard to the rings of
Saturn, the zone of asteroids, the relative distances of the planets, &c.,
the study of which, it is believed, may lead to new and important discov-
eries. "These hieroglyphics older than the Xile," pointing back to the
epochs at which the planets were born, will doubtless in the future be
more or less clearly deciphered, and the ancient history of the solar system

at least partially developed.

It is a very remarkable fact in regard to the systems of both primary
and secondary planets that the periods, without any exception, have very
simple relations of approximate commensnrability. This truth, though
obvious on mere inspection, seems not to have attracted the special notice
of astronomers, as no attempt had been made, previous to that of the
writer, to assign its physical cause. A general view of these approxima-
tions is presented hi the following tables, where the periods of the primary
planets, Mercury, Venus, c^c, are represented by P\ P^S &c., and those

of the satellites by p^ p^^ &c.

I.

The PiUMAKY System-.

ii

iP

VIII

83.87 years=^P

YII

l.G5y.

i^

VJI

:28.01

a

p

TI

■lATy

iV

YI

11.78

£(

:.^'

0.08

4P

V

1.97

i.i

P^^ H-0.09

1 p

V

b.988

((

P

111

0.013

fP

III

O.G07 "

P

II

+0.052

>!

IP

II

=0.34G

a

1

3I

II.

0.005

The Jovian System.

;pi^ =

III
"P

oUl Q S

— 0 y

, 111
ip

11
= P

+ 30 40

1 II
ip

I
=P

+ 9 45

Kivkwood.]

164

[Oct. 6,

III.

The Satt]1inia:n' System.

, vni Yii I /ox

1 vni

P

VI

1^^ 54"' 41^"

2

VI

rP

p^ + 0

\i

P

IV

IV

Til

P

P

II

1

0

0

'}0

54

13

15

2

50

ly.

The Ukanian System.

2
3

iP

IV

III , ph
p +6

ii>

III

II

-L-

3,,
5P

II

P

1

It is infinitely improbable that all these coincidences should be purely
accidental. Their physical cause is a legitimate object of research, and
the writer is vain enough to believe that he has suggested the true one.*
Before proceeding with our discussion, however, it may be proper to in-
dicate such modifications of the nebular hypothesis as seem to be de-
manded by recent discoveries.

The view gen^irally received in regard to the formation of the solar sys-
tem has been that equatorial rings were abandoned only in the vicinity
of the present planetary orbits. As the writer has elsewhere observed,
however, "it seems highly probable that, after first reaching the point
at which gravity was counterbalanced by tlie centrifugal force arising
from the rotation of the contracting spheroid, a continuous succession
df narrow rings would be thrown off in close proximity to each other,
and revolving in different periods according to Kepler's thh-d law." But
in this matter we are not left to mere speculation. The zone of minor
planets has evidently not been produced by a single annulus, all the parts
of which had, at first, nearly equal velocities. On the contrary, it must
have resulted from an almost continuous abandonment of narrow rings,
from the exterior limit at the mean distance 3.50, down to the inteiior,
at 2.30. Tlie rings of Saturn, moreover, afford a similar index to the pro-
cess of planetary formation.

Let us assume, then, the existence of a central mass S, with a ring R,
and an exterior planet P. The particles of the ring having diilerent dis-
tances from the centre of motion will move with different velocities. Let

3

. I

^

*Mct. Astr.,Cli,XT[I., and Monthly Xi>tices snLlie E. A.S., vol. XX]\.

^^.^-i

18V1.]

165

[Kirkwood.

S p "be the distance at which a planetary molecule "would revolve in one
half the period of the planet P. The disturbing effect of P -will render
the orbit of p more and more eccentric. The particle, thereforCj must be
brought into contact, either in aphelion or perihelion, witii other parts of
the ring, thus forming a planetary nucleus at such distance that its period
would be nearly one-half that of the exterior planet. Similar reasoning
will api:)ly to the distances at which the ratio of the i)eriods would he J,
or any simi)le relation of commensurability. We have tlius an ex-

5 J

tremely simple explanation of the facts embodied in the preceding tables.
Should it be objected that this theory fails to account for the formation
of the most remote planet, it may be answered that the first separation of
matter from the condensing nebula probably occurred before the mass
had assumed a symmetrical form. The successive ratios of the periods
from Keptune to Jupiter are h, -^ and 5. With Jupiter, " tlie giant of the
solar system," the process of planet formation seems to have culminated ;
the mass of this stupendous globe being nearly tliree times greater than
that of all other members of the solar family united. But why h;ive we
no planet of any considerable magnitude whose period is one-half, one-
third, or two-fifths that of Jupiter ? It maybe answered, in the first
place, that the matter of asteroid ring was so extremely rare that the in-
tersection of orbits failed to produce large planetary nuclei. The ques-
tion recurs, however, whence the S77iaU mass of the ring immediately
interior to the largest member of the system ? The circumstances of the

F

primitive asteroid-ring were different from those of any other. As its
successive portions were thrown off at the equator of the solar nebula
they would be liable to great x>erturbations by Jupiter. The perihelion
distance of portions of the zone might thus become less tlian the equato-
rial radius of the spheroid by which they had been abandoned. A consid-
erable proportion of the matter originally separated may have been thus
re-united to the parent mass.*

The writer has shown however, that in the distribution of the mean dis-
tances of the asteroids, we have indications of an order similar to that
of the exterior planets. This fact is rendered still more conspicuous
by recent discoveries. The distances at which the periods of asteroids
would be one-half, two-fifths, and one-third that of Jupiter, are respec-
tively, 3.277G, 2.8345, and 2.5012. Between the mean distances 3.22
and 3.32 no asteroid has yet been discovered; while between 3,12 and
3.22 there are no less than 12. Between 2.78 and 2.88, the interval con-
taining the distance at which five times the period of a planet would be
equal to twice that of Jupiter, only two have been detected ; while in the
equal space immediately interior, from 2.68 to 2.78, there are 21. Finally,
between 2.45 and 2.55, the space in the middle of w^hich an asteroid's
period would be one-third that of Jupiter, tlic number of known asteroids
is 4 ; while in the equal space immediately interior there ai'c 20, and in

I

that exterior, 15. These facts are certainly very remarkable, and deserve
the earnest consideration of astronomers.

*See Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, Aug. VJ, l.STu.

.-

J

\

^

■>^

^^^v^g

'.-•^'

KirkwooclJ

16G

[Oct. 6,

The preceding table of the primary system seems to indicate the de-
pendence of the periods of Mars and the earth on the powerful mass of
Jupiter. The relations expressed between the periods of the earth, Yenus,

r"

and Mercury are sufficiently obvious. It is wortliy of remark that the
original distances of the exterior planets have been, in all probability,
sensibly diminished. While the solar nebula was undergoing tlie process
of condensation all cometary and meteoric matter attracted towards its
centre, would, if the pcrilieliou distance were considerably less than the
radius of the nebula, become incorporated with the central body. This
growth of the solar mass would i>roduce a shortening of the periodic times
of all planets previously formed.

The approximations to cammensurability in the secondary systems are
still more striking, and must produce the impression in every inquiring
mind that they are not without their physical significance.

The rings of Saturn formerly supposed to be solid and continuous, are
now regarded as consisting of an indefinite number of extremely small
satellites. They are, in short, a compact cluster of secondary asteroids,
analogous to the primary zone between Mars nnd Jupiter. In the latter,
it is true, a large proportion of the primitive matter has collected in dis-
tinct, planetary masses ; while a similar result has been prevented in the
Saturnian rings by their proximity to the central body. In one respects
however, we observe a striking correspondence. It has been shown that
several positions occur in the asteroid zone where planetary periods would
have simple relations of commensurability with the jieriod of Jupiter,
and that portions of the original ring occupying these positions would be
liable to great disturbance. Kow, the ring of Saturn is evidently subject
to like perturbation by the nearest satellites. Hence gaps or chasms,
analogous to those in the zone of asteroids, ought also to be found in the
secondary ring. It has accordingly been noticed that Cassini's, or rather
Ball's division occurs precisely where the periods of satellites would be
commensurable with those of the four members of the system immediately

exterior.*

r

But astronomers have sometimes seen the ring of Saturn apparently
separated by several black lines into concentric annul! . At other times,
however, no such divisions coidd be detected. The fact, therefore, of the
permanence of these gaps is extremely doubtful, except in the case of a
division of the exterior briglit ring. This has been frequently seen by
eminent astronomers ; and it is probable, though not absolutely certain^
that it is never entirely closed. Most observers agree in placing it out-
side of the middle of the exterior ring. Let us now inquire whether any
simple relation of commensurability obtains between the periods of satel-
lites revolving at the distance of this outermost gap, and those of Mimas,
Enceladus, Tcthys, and Dione.

i of the period of Mimas

7

2
7

12^^ 56^"

Li

Tethys

1'^

57

* Meteoric Astronmrnj^ Clui]). XII.

/

^i

■^v

]S71 ]

167

[Kirkwood.

/ \

1

5
2

ii

i. i

Dioue

Encelaclus

IS
13

8
9

The interior radius of the outer ring

The radius of a ch-cle bisecting the outer ring

The distance of a satellite \vhose period is 13 06

The distance of a satellite whose period is 13 9
The exterior radius of the outer ring

1.99G3
2.1209

3.1473

2.1510
3.2456

It is thus seen that just beyond the middle of the outer ring, wliere tlie
division is actually found, another zone occurs in Avhich the periodic times
of satellites would be commensurable with those of Mimas, Enceladus,
Tethys and Dione.

The FACTS detailed in the preceding pages arc unquestionable. In re-
gard to the in-oposed explanaiio?i of these facts the writer would speak
with becoming caution. In his humble attempt to reduce a large chiss of
isolated truths to the domain of law some important considerations may
have been overloohed. Be this as it may, he indulges the hope that abler
astronomers may deem the enqaivy not unworthy their researclics.

/

Slated Meeting^ Oct. 6th., 1871.-

Present, fifteen members-.

Vice President, Mr. Fraley, in tlie cliair.

A pliotograpli for tlic Album was received from Professor
E. N. Horsford, dated Cambridge, Massachusetts, October 29.

Letters of aclcnowledgmcnt were read from the London
Meteorolocrical Office, September 22 (83, 84, 80) ; and the
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, December 1, 1870

(XI Pro).

Letters of envoi were received from the Natural History

and Historical Union of Ponanerschingen, September 15, and

the United States Secretary of the Interior, Washington, D.

C, September 15, 1871.

A recent letter from Mr. Carlier to Mr Durand, was read
by Mr. Price, who offered a Kesolution, which was adopted,
authorizing the presiding ofhcer of the meeting to execute

I ■'i

1'^' -_

Cope.]

1G8

^ t

[Oct. 1^0.

I I

a Power of Attorney to M. Carlier, of Paris, to receive moneys
on account of the Micliaux Legacy.

Donations for the Library were received from Doctor
Zenaro, of Constantinople, the Union at Donauerschingen, the
Prussian and Belgian Academies, Geographical Society at
Paris, Annalesdes Mines, Eevue Politique, the Meteorological
Office and Nature of London, the Montreal Natural History
Society, the American Academy, Natural History Societ_y,
and Old and New of Boston ; Mr. Edmund Quincy,
of Dedham, MassacLiusetts, the American Journal of Arts
a.nd Sciences; Doctor Squibb, of New Yorlv, the Franlvlin
Institute, College of Pliarmacy, and Penn Monthly, of Phila-
delphia, the Census Bureau at Washington, and tlie Historical
Society of Georgia at Savannah,

An obituary notice of the late Doctor Ehoads, of Phila-
delphia, was read by Doctor Henry llartshorne.

Professor Kirkwood's paper on the Origin of the Solar
System, was read by the Secretary.

A letter from Professor Cope to the Secretary, on the
lieptile and Fish remains in the State ^[useum of Kansas, was
read by the Secretary.

Mr. Baird communicated his views on the cause of the
decline of vegetable vitality in fruit trees, dating from the
year 1860.

Mr. Lesley read a note on some supposed Egyptian letters,
in tlie Dolmen of Manelut], in Brittan3^

New nomination. No. 679 was read, and the meeting was
adjourned.

1

r

Note of some Cretaceous Veriehrata ifi the State Agricultural College of

Kanms, U. S. A.

By Edwaup D. CorE.

Maisiiattan, Kaksas, 1871.
My deab Pkof. Lesley :

A visit to tlic State Agricultural College of Kansas at Maubattan, lias
enabled me to examine tbo cretaceous vertebrata contained in its collec-
tion. Professor B. F. Mudge, already well known by his interesting dis-
coveries among the rytlionomorpli reptiles and Saurodoui Fishes, has

\^^.:

^g^ 169 [Cope.

added to his collections by au excursion in the neighborhood of Fort
Wahace, duiing the present summer. By his permission I have made an
examination of these fossils, and iind them to be of much interest. They
consist of seven species ot Pytlionomorplia, and three oi Saurodoiiiidoi.
The following are approximate or exact determinations of them.

PYTnOJS OMOKPnA.

MosASATTKrs quite near to M. depressus, Cope, from :N"evv Jersey.

LiODON DYSPELOU, Oopc, probably. The first time that this gigantic
reptile has been discovered in Kansas.

LiODON ; a large species near to L. proriger, Cope. It is represented
by dorsal, lumbar, and caudal vertebra3, by ribs, and by bones of the
extremities. The humerus is a remarkable bone having the outline of
that of CUdastes propi/tJw}i, Cope, but is very much stouter, the antero-
posterior dimensions of the proximal extremity being greatly enlarged.
The long diameters of the two extremities are in fact nearly at right
angles, instead of in the same plane, and the outline of the proximal is
subtriangular, one of the angles being prolonged into a strong deltoid
crest on the outer face of the bone, which extends half its length. The
inner or posterior distal angle is much produced, while the distal ex-
tremity is a flat slightly curved diamond-shaped surface. The radius is
as broad as long and three quarters of a disc. The phalanges are stout,
thick and depressed, thus differing much from those of IJodon ictericus,
A bone wdiich I cannot assign to any other position than that of femur*
has a peculiar form. It is a stout bone but more slender than the humerus.
The shaft is contracted and subtrilateral in section. The extremities are
flattened, expanded m directions transverse to each other, the proximal
having, however, a lesser expansion, in the plane of the distal end. The
foimer'has, thrcrefore, the form of an equilateral spherical triangle, the
apex enclosing a lateral fossa and representing probably the great tro-
chanter. The distal extremity is a transverse and convex oval.

M.

Length humerus • . - . : r ^-^^ ■

Proximal diameter do - ■ : •'^' '*

AQ

Length femur ^"^

Proximal diameter do • -^^^

Median " '^'^'^

Length centrum dorsal vertebra without ball OGl

Transverse diameter cup ^^^

Vertical " • '^"^'^

LiODON LATisPiNUS, Cope, sp. nov.

This is a large species, nearly ^equalling the L. mitchillii in its dimen-
sions, that is forty or fifty feet in length. The remains representing it
consist of seven cervical and dorsal vertebne, five of them being contin-
uous and enclosed in a clay concretion.

* P]-of. 0. C, Marsh has discovered the posterior limbs ia tliis gLiiuis and Clidasfes but lias as yet
iniblislicd no (iescription of them. Sec ,'^iIllnl, Journ. 1871, p. 418.

A. F. S.-VOL. Xll-Y

f^.-_-^

■<\

m^

Tlicse display the elongate character scoii in L. laems, etc., but the ar-
ticular surfaces arc transversely oval, thus resembling the X. ictericus.
They are less depressed than in Z. 2oerkUus and L. dyspelor. The cup and
ball of the penultimate cervical rise a little more transverse than
those of the fourth dorsal. The last cervical is strongly keeled On the
middle line below, and with a short obtuse hypopopliysis marking the be-
ginning of the posterior third of the length ; the median line of the first
dorsal has an obtuse ridge. There is no keel on the fourth dorsal. The
diapophyscs on the last two cervical and three first dorsal vertebrae have
great vertical extent ; the articular surface for the rib is not bent at right
angles on the last cervical. Neural arches and spines are well preserved
m most of the specimens. There is no trace of zygantrum.' The neural
spines are flat, and have considerable aiitero-posterior extent on cervica
as well as dorsal vertebra, and are truncate above. The first dorsal has
a long strong rib.

,,, M.

Iransvcrse diameter cup penultimate cervical vertebra 051

Vertical diameter of same ' ^'^-^

Length centrum fourth dorsal, without ball " ^072

Vertical diameter ball 045^

Transverse do n-^r

Elevation front margin neural spine penultimate cervical 08S

Antero-posterior diameter do do do !o5

There are smooth bands around the balls and the surfaces of the cen-
tra arc striate to these.

The depressed cups of the cervicals and anterior dorsals distinn-uish
this species from the L. milidus, L. proriger and Z. mudfjii. The same
elements are much larger and more elongate than in Z. ictericiis.

LiODON, sp. near ictericus, Cope.

Represented in Prof. Mudge's collection by portions of cranium inclu-
ding jaws and quadrate bones, etc., with cervical and dorsal vertebup..
Clidastes yymanit, Marsh, probably.
CIJPASTES CINEIUAKTTM, Copc. Dorsal and cervical vertebrae.

SAIJKODONTIDyE.

IciiTiiYODECTEs, ur. cMnodon, Cope.

Anogmius coktkactus, gen. et sp. nov. ? Saurodontidarum.

Kepresented by a large scries of vertebrae and portions of hns of an in-
dividual of perhaps four feet in length. The characters of the vertebra
are those of Iclitnyodecies in part, i. e. they lack the lateral gi'ooves, but
they resemble those of ScmrocepJialus in having the basal elements of the
neural and haemal elements inserted by gomphosis and not coossified
with the centrum. Specifically, the centra are relatively longer than in
L ctenodon, and more as in the shorter forms of Saurocepluaus, as S.
prorjnathus, which species the present one approaches in size.

SAUJtoOEniALUs, nr. prognathits, Copc.

\

V ^

\

;-r*i:

187J . ]

171

[Ilartshorne.

\

OUtnary Notice of Edward Ehoads^ M. D.
By Heney Hahtsiiohne, M. D.

[Bead hefore the American Philosophical Society, Phila. Oct. C, 1871.)

Of those recently deceased, members of a profession ^vliicli lias
contributed a large sliare of workers to the different fields of biological
science, few have given greater i^roniisc, and not many among ns have at-
tained to better performance in a short career, than Edward Rboads.
Unfavorable for the full appreciation of his work, except by those with
whom he was closely associated, has been the fact that much of it has
been unrecorded ; being the daily labor of the practitioner and teacher of
medichie. But it is fitting that this Society, whose pursuits and member-
ship are not narrowly limited, should at least briefly record its recognition
cf such high ability and character.

Edward Rhoads was born in Philadelphia, September 20, 1841. After
a good preliminary training, in which an early love of natural science dis-
played itself, lie entered Itavcrford College in 1855 ; and was graduated
there, at the head of his class, in 1859. The rural- situation of the college
afforded him an opportunity for the study of Botany, in which he became
well versed while a sudent. Shortly after leaving college, an attack of
rheumatic fever, involving the heart, began those inroads upon his con-
stitution, the repetition of which afterAvavds abridged his life. In the fal
of 1800 he commenced the stndy of medicine, and obtained the degree of
Doctor of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, in 18G3. He was
then elected, after a competitive examination, Resident Physician in the
Philadelphia Hospital, West Philadelphia. This was followed, in 1864,
by his appointment as Resident Physician in the Pennsylvania Hospital.
In the midst of his ardnons duties there, performed with distinguished
success and Avith satisfaction to all, he was again affected with articular
rheumatism, which renewed seriously the disorganizing disease of his

heart.

On recovering from this attack, he visited Europe, in I860, being absent

eight months. In 1866, he was appointed Visiting Physician to the Phil-
adelphia Hospital ; where his professional talent, enthusiam and knowl-
edge, and his cfipacity as a clinical teacher, found free scope for develop-
ment and utility. He was at the same time assiduously engaged in private
medical teaching, as an examiner in connection with the courses of the
University of Pennsylvania, and in giving lectures upon medical chemistry
and connected subjects. In 1870 the faculty of the University appointed
hiiu its lecturer on Physical .Diagnosis. His hrst course of lectures was
interrupted by illness, which prevented his ever resuming the duties of a

public instructor.

In the same year, a number of gentlemen proposing to establish a new

medical journab— The Philadelphia :^Iedioal Times, -its editorship was

unanimously ofTei-ed to Dr. Rhoads. This duty, which enlisted all his

zeal, and would have illustratt:d admirably his professional learning and

■if

.»^^,^i

.T n^I^^^^rV ■-"

^

Ilartsliorue. ]

172

[Oct. 20.

:|

tact, lie was obliged to forego on account of Ids failure in health, which,
after great suffering for several months, ended his life Januaiy 15, 1871.

In private practice, Dr. Rhoads was rai^idly gaining the confidence and
success which his skill and acquirement deserved ; as well as the warm
and grateful attachment of many families,— which remains in commemora-
tion of his virtues, more faithful than any eulogy, and more endur-
ing than any monument. He was elected to membership, besides the
Philosophical Society, in the Philadelphia College of Physicians, of which
he was Recording Secretary, the Academy of Natural Sciences, and the
Pathological Society. To the proceedings of the latter he contributed a
number of papers. He wrote for the American Journal of the Medical
Sciences several reviews, showing a quick critical apprehension, a largo
acquaintance with medical science and literature, and an excellent conr-
mand of language. He assisted Dr. J. F. Meigs in the preparation of an
elaborate pn.pcr, published in the hrst volume of the Pennsylvania Hos-
pital Ecports, 18G8, on ''The Morphological Changes of the Blood in
Malarial Fever." With Dr. VV. Pepper, he contributed to the same vol-
ume the resuUs of an extcKded inquiry into the "Fluorescence of the
Tissues of the Human T3ody, especially in connection with Malarial
disease and the action of Quinia," The scientific spirit which ammated
all his professional labors, and which he brought to the hivestigation of
the great problems of Pathology and therapeutics, thus elevating the vo-
cation of the physician far above routine, was web exemplified in this
paper. Its preparation was suggested by the remarkable observation of
Bonce Jones, by whom a lluorescence resembhng closely that of a solution
of quinine was found to occur in solutions of the tissues of animals which
had taken none of that subytancc. A peculiar iluorescent organic princi-
ple was hero inferred to bo a normal constituent of the animal body ; and
to this Bence Jones applied the name of " Animal Quinoidine." It was
not an irrational hypothesis, that the systemic effects of the malarial
poison may be attended by an injurious dcticiency of this material ; and
that quinine, or the other extractives of Peruvian bark, may be remedial
for the disease, by supplying the system with its equivalent.

Drs. Phoads and Pepper undertook first, to ascertain whether, by
chemical and spectroscopic analysis, there could be shown to bo a marked
diminution in the amount of animal (juinoidinc in the body under the in-
fluence of malarial disease. They also gave attention to the effect upon
the animal fiuorescence produced by the treatment of the attack by sul-
phate of cinchonia. The interesting result was arrived at by a series of
careful and exact determinations, that there is, uniformly, a close con-
nection between malarial disease and the diminution of " animal quinoi-
dine ;" and that this connection is apparent, not only in the presence of a
fully developed paroxysm of fever, but also Avhen the system is more in-
sidiously, though often very seriously, affected by the morbid cause.

The same exact inquiry into evidence, with the aim to discover and es-
tablish truth, was applied by Dr. Rhoads in his consideration, both theo-

^
'

>:

\\\

.im\-^

3li ^-"^

•^ ^-

'^

)
)

1871. j

173

[Hartsliorne.

rctical and practical, of the highest topics, not on^y of science, but of
plxilosophy. Contented to accept no truth upon the evidence of mere tra_
dition or hnnian authority, liis opinions upon rehgious subjects, being
those held by the Societ) of Friends of Vvhichhc Avas a nrember, were the
result of deliberate and strong conviction. His hue critical faculty was
brought to bear upon the recent Biblical and anti-lJibhcal controversies,
represented, upon the one side, in different modes, by Strauss, Bauen
Oomte, Benan and Buckle. In several essays, prepared for special occa-
sions, only one of which, however, has been published, he displayed a
calm mastery of these topics, an amount of knowledge and force of argu-
ment, such as might be looked for rather in a professed theologian than
in an active member of the medical profession.

With all wdio knew Dr. Edward Bhoads, however, his intellectual cn-
dowmicnts, though great, were always perceived to be subordinated to
moral qualities more rare and admirable. From early youtli, purity of
life, uusehishness, refinement and elevation of miurl, were his marked
characteristics. Few^ examples so spotless arc met with in any profession
or si)here of life. In the large assembly which met at his funeral, words
spokeir by several wdio knew 1dm well, and whose standard of character
was high, were such as might fulfil the aspirations of the most saintly of
men, and which very few, indeed, could deserve.

Stakd Meciing^ Oct. 20, 1871.
Presentj nine members.
Curator, Dk. Cakso^', in the chair.
A letter, acknowledging receipt of ^^o. 86 proccediiigSj was
received from the University of the Citv of New Yorlc.

Donations for the Library were received from the Eevue
Politique; the Astronomer Eoyal of Juigland; the Editors
of Nature; the E. Institute of Cornwall; Thomas P. James,
Esq ; the Editor of the Old and New ; the American Chemist ;
American Journal of Medical Sciences, aud AlcdicalNew
and Library.

A letter Avas read from Professor Cope to the Secretary,
dated Fort Wallace, Kansas, 10th month 9, 1871, givino; a
preliminary report of his expedition into the Yallcy of "the

^s

•*■

Ar.uB^^rvx-

.0^:

■^^'^i^S^

Cope J

174

[Oct. 20

Smoky Hill river, Kansas, and descriptions of new fossil sau-
roids and Chelonians discovered and collected there.

Pending nominations No. 679 and new nominations, ISTos.
680 and 681 were read, and the meeting was adjourned.

Ill

FoiiT Wallace, Ivaksas,

October Oth, 1871.

3fy Dear Prof. Lesley ;—

I write to give a brief account of the exi^edition of seventeen clays,
wliicli I bave just made in tbe vabey of tbo Smoky Ilin river in Kansas.
Through tliG courtesy of Gen. Jno. Pope, commanding the Department
of the Missouri, I was furnished with an order on the post commandant at
Fort WaHace for a suitable escort. This was furnislicd by Capt. E.
Butler (5th infantry), who spared no pains to make the expedition a

■ F

success.

We first camped at a spring eighteen miles south of Fort Wallace, and

five miles south of Butte Creek. It had a fine How of water, and being
without name I called it Fossil Spring. On a blnlf, on Butte Creek,
Lieut. Whitten discovered the fragments of a monster saurian projecting
from the shale, and on following the bones into the hill, exhumed a large
part of the skeleton of Liodon dyspelor Cope (Proceeds. A. P. S. for 1870).
This was welcome, as the species had been previously known from ver-
tebriB only. The pelvic arch was found perfectly preserved, and the
scapular arch and limbs partially so. The iliac bone is slender and straight,
slightly expanded at the acetabulum. The ischium has a somewhat
similar form, but is curved. The axis of the i>roximal porti(mis directed
upwards ; the shaft then turns into a horizontal direction, and lies be-
neath and at one side of the vertebral column without uniting with its
fellow. The pubes are elongate, but wider than the other elements and
flattened. They are in contact in front medially, and bave an angulato
axis. A short process projects from near the proximal end, on the ex-
terior margin. The femur is a Hat bone, slightly constricted mcdiahy,
and with a^decurved and projecting portion of the proximal articular,
surface on the inner side representhig a head. The extremities of the
dentai-y bones are each drawn to an acute point differing thus toto c-

from those of the. X. proriger.

On the same blulf another Liodon and a Clidasles were found, with five

species of fishes.

On examining neighboring bluffs and denuded areas, bones supposed

to be those of Pierodaclyle, two species of GUdastes, a Dinosaur, a Croco-
dile, and numerous fishes were brought to light.

In a similar location on Fox Creek canon, one of the escort, Martin V.
Hartwell, to whom I am indebted for many fine discoveries, observed the
almost entire skeleton of a large iish, furnished with an uncommonly

)

1871.]

175

LCope,

powerful ollx;n.sive dentition. The jaws were stout, the dentary bone
very deep. The teeth in a single row in all the bones, but of irregular
sizes. There arc two or three very large canines in each maxillary, and
one in the prcmaxilhrry, three or four in the dentary separated by an
interval. Tlic lack of coronoid bone and many other characters show
that it should be referred to the order hospondali, and is probably allied
to the herring and the Saurodontidae. The vertebrae are grooved, and
there is a basi-occipital tube but little developed. The teeth are simple
cylindric conic, with smooth enamel, and project two inches above the
alveokir border, and each descends an inch into itsr alveolus. The species
and genus arc new to our palaeontology, and may be named Portheus
molosms. It turned out on subsequent exploration to have been quite
abundant in the Cretaceous seas. It was probably the dread of its
cotemporarics among the fishes as well as' the smaller saurians.

On another occasion, we detected unusually attenuated bones projecting
from the side of a low bluff of yellow chalk, and some pains were taken
to uncover them. They were found to belong to a singular reptile, of
affinities probably to tl;e Tcstudinata, this point remaining uncertain.
Instead of being expanded into a carapace, the ribs are slender and tiat.
The tubercular portion is expanded into a transverse shield to beyond the
capitular articulation, which thus projects as it wcyq in the midst of a Hat
plate. These plates have radiating lines of growth to the circumference,
which is dentate. Above each rib was a largo flat ossification of much
tenuity, and digitate on the margins, which appears to represent the dermo-
ossification of the Tortoises. Two of these bones were recovered, each
two feet across. The femur resembles in some measure that ascribed
by Leidy to Platecarpus iympaniiicus, while the phalanges are of great
size. Those of one series measured eight inches and a half in lengthr and
are very stout, indicating a length of limb of seven feet at lea^t. ' The
whole expanse would thus be twenty feet if estimated on a Chelonian basis.
The proper reference of this species cannot now be made, but both it and
the genuss are clearly new to science, and its affinities not very near to
those known. Not the least of its peculiarities is the great tenuity of all
the bones. It may be called FroioUega gigas.

r

The greater part of a large Liodon proriger Cope was found scattered
over a denuded surface at one point, his huge truncate, bowsprit-like
snout, betraying his individuality at once. Portions of other examples
of this reptile were afterwards found. Remains of several species of Cli-
dastes occm-i-Gd at various points in the neighborhood of lossil Sprin<r
One was found in the side of a bluff fifty feet above the bottom of the
canon ; Martin Ilartwell exhumed another near the G. cineriaruvi Cope
almost complete.

We subsequently left this locality and encamped at Kussell Springs on
the Smoky Hill, twenty-six miles distant. On the way a largo GUdastes
of ,some forty or more feet in length wa.. found lying on a knoll of shale,
^vjth the head displaying the palatal surface upwards. On the Smoky

^Jn^■^

Cope,]

176

[Oct. 20,1871.

our explorations were attended with success. When we shifted camp, it
was to go to Eagle Tail in Colorado, whence we returned again to I^ossil
Spring. Tlie richness of this locality was again apparent, and we added
to onrcollection a number of species. Among these may he mentioned
Lioclon iciericus Cope and two new CUdastes. The writer originally pointed
out the existence of representatives of the orders F(/thonomorpha and
Sauropterygm, in this cretaceous basin. Prof. Marsh's explorations
determined the existence of Ornithoscmria and CrocodiUa. The present
investigation adds Binosauria and perhaps Testtulinata, or the group that
the new form Protostega Cope represents.

The preceding account expresses some of the points of interest observed.
Tliese, with others, now unnoticed, will be included in a final report.

The giants of this sea were the Liodon proriger, Cope, L. di/^pelor, Cope,
Polycoiylus latipinnis, Cope, and nasoiosaurus plaiyurus, Cope. Of
these tlie first was apparently the most abundant. The second was the
most elongate, exceeding in length perhaps any other known reptile.
Tiie last named had the most massive body, and exhibited an extraordi-
nary appearance in consequence of the great length of its neck.

For kind assistance, I am much indebted to Capt. Edwin Butler, post
commandant at Fort Wallace, to Dr. W. II- King, post surgeon, and to
Capt Wyllys Lyman. To Lieut. Jas. II. Whitten and Sergeant W.
Gardner, who accompanied the expedition, much of its success is also duo.

I am, etc., ED W. D. COPE.

!'1r

■ " I

I

Seated Meeting, Nov. Sd, 1871.

Prcsont, eleven members.

Vice President, Chksson-, in the chair.

Letters of envoi were received from the societies at Pdga
Chemnitz, AViosbaden, Lyons and Copenhagen, the University
of Norway, and the Eoyal Geographical Society at London.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Nassau
N History Uuion at AVicsbaden, (Proceedings 78-83,) and
the Imperial Society of Agricultare and Natural History ut
Lyons, July 20, (73-81,) requesting the completion of their
series, wliich, on motion, Avas so ordered.

Donations for the Library were received from the Societies
at Ri^a, Chemnitz, Gorlitz, AViesbadcn, Lausanne, Lyons,
Livcrpwl, Glasgow and Salem, Mass., the Berlin Academy,
Geolocdcal Society, and Archajological Institute, the Austrian
Geological Institute, Anthropological Society, Herr von Ilauer,

f

%

'^.

■vC-^

177

A

I

Mr. Neumeyr and Dr. Emanuel Bunzel, the Danish Antiqua-
rian Society, the Norwegian University, the Revue Politique,
M.M. Delesse and Lapparent, the British Association, Meteo-
rological Office, Meteorological, Geographical, Chemical, Geo-
loo-icaL Zooloo-ical and Antiquarian Societies of London, the
Editors ol; Nature, the American Journal of Science and Art,
the Protestant Episcopal Diocesan of Pennsylvania, and the
Chief of Engineers of the II. S. Army.

The death of Sir E.l. Murchison, in the eightieth year of
his age, at London, on the 28d instant, was announced by the

Secretary.

The loss by shipwreck, in a recent storm, on-Lakc Superior,

of James T. ilodge, a member of the society, was announced
by Secretary, with appropriate remarks.

Prof Cope made some general observations on the extinct
Batrachiau Fauna of the Carboniferous of Linton, Ohio., based
on studies of material obtained by Prof. J. S. Newberry, Di-
rector of the Geological Survey of Ohio.

Twenty-seven species had been discovered up to the present time,
and not one of them was a reptile ; twenty-three of these were referred
to the following genera : Pelio7i, Wyman, 1 ; Satiropleura, Cope, B ; Tii-
ditanus, Cope, 4 ; Brachi/dectes, Cope, 1 ; Oesiocephalu,% Cope, G ; Cocy-
tinus, Cope, 1 ; Molgoplm, Cope, 1; FhlegeiJionUa, Cope, 3; ColosieuSj

Cope, 8 ; Eurytfiorax, Cope, 1.

Tuditanus, Coojtmy-R and PhJcgeihontia were described as new genera.
The first represented Bejidrerpeton, but possessed the usualthree thoracic
shields, a character not yet found in the former genus, ^

PhleaethonUa embraced slender snakedike forms alhed to Molgophu,
but without ribs. Gocytinus was a branchiferons genus having iour
branchihyal bones, two basals branchihyals and two ceratohyals on each
side, and with conic teeth in the anterior portion of the mandible only,
on an expansion or dental plate. Limbs none in front.

Oestocephalus was dehned as having the three pectoral shields, poste:-'
rior limbs only present and weak ; head lanceolate ; ventral armature of
packed osseous rods en chevron; neural and haemal spines of caudal
vertebrae expanded and fan-like. The six species were enumerated, viz :
0. remex, Cope, 0. peciinatus, C, 0. marsliU, C, 0. curmdens, C, 0.
mncheUianus, C, 0, serrula, C, the last three being new to science.
Other new species were described, as Sauropleiira longipes, 0,, and b.
hrevipes, C, Tudiianus brevlrosiris, C, T. mordax, C, and T. radiatus,
C, Cocgtimis ggrinoides, C, Plilegethontia linearis, C, was indicated as a
species with lanceolated head, no ribs, a very elongate tail, and without
limbs or ventral or thoracic armature. Phlegethontia serpen!^, C, was
a laro-er species. Anew Colosteits, C. pauciradiatus was added^ and an
allied form described as Eurythorcr saUaevis. The pectoral median
shield is subround and nearly smooth, and belonged to an animal of four

feet in length. . -r.T ^ t • ^ i

Sauropleura, Oocgtinus, Molgoplm, PhlegeiJiontta were enumeviited as

genera in wdiich pectoral shields had not been observed, and 1 eUon. and
Tuditanus were characterized as the broad-headed types.

A. F. S.— VOL. XII — W

^

J

A

Chase J

178

[Aug. 18,

I

.1^1

■ , ■ Cyclical Rainfallb at Luhon,

By Pliny Earle Chase.
Bead before the American PJdlosopMcal Society, Aug, 18, 1871.

The more strongly marked and decisive character of the curves of lunar
naonthly rainfall, in Philadelphia than in Great Britain, {antey. x., pp.
523-34,) rendered me desirous of obtaining observations from some Euro-
pean station in lower latitude. The intimation of that desire to the
Director of the *' Observatorio do Infante Dom Luiz," at Lisbon, was
promptly followed by the transmission of a copy of observations extend-
ing over a period of sixteen years, which is herewith presented. I also
submit some of the tabulated results of such discussion of the observa-
tions as I have already undertaken, which appear to me to corroborate,
in a most satisfactory manner, the views I have hitherto advanced respect-
ing the^ meteorological influence of the moon. Some of the tables also
afford interesting indications of a somewhat similar planetary influence,
sufficient, as it seems to me, to encourage further investigation.

One of the objections most often urged against the acknowledgment of

TABLE L

Different and non^corrcspondent Hainfalls at Lisbon, in Lunar and Solar periods
from December 1, 1854, to December 1, 1870. R.=Total Jail; ^^.=J\^orniah?er cent-
age of rain.

5 ^

iH -1-
P

LUNAIi MONTHLY.

.-^.

DO

Dec. Mar,

> ^ ,

K. N. E. n:

Apl. July

. A

Aug. Nov. Yr,
R. JS. N.

1855 f3N*
, ^ ,

E. ISi.

1

3

4 ri « • « « P

5

\/ » > * » p »

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

17

18

19

20

21

J^^ * * « a « A

^*y * 4 V > 4 «
24

25......

27

28

21)8.0
223.9
174.8
130.9
153.5
189.8
1418
106 7
187.2

182.9
18.5.3
252.0
269.8
271.7
173.1
214.7
272.6
2G0. 8
260. 0
289 8
199.1

99.3
105.1

97.2
123.2
112.3
244. 7
1187

30 214.7

123
115

97

85

83

81

78

78

85

95

1(j8

121

128

124

118

119

128

1.35

136

124
101

75
00
57
64
76
87
95
105
118

45.9
79.7
53.5
63.6
75.9
08. 3
42.9
88.8
37.4
83.1
67.7
83.3
71.6

113.0
46.2
73.2
53.5
89. 5

102.9
97.3

105.7
91.7
30.1
12.0
424
67. 5
61.6
79.6
52.0
44.5

82
89
94
97

96
94
93
96

102

109

116
121

118
107

101

107

123

138

145

135

108

74

58

64

82

94

94

86

79

154.5
143.1
156.5
124.4
1(14.9

60.3
1L3.5
181.1
118.0
168. 9

74.0
111.7

267. 0
187.0
118.7
146.9

195. 1
204.1
207.5
135 5

98. 9

103.9
69.5
84.0

120.7
65.4

134.4

124.2

102.7

71.4

95

104

103

93

81

78

89

102

104

98

98

114

132

133

122

122

1.34

141

132

114

98

87

77

72

72

77

82

8,3

81

84

106

106

99

90

85

83

84

89

93

98

105

118

128

126

118

117

120

135

335

124

106

85

08

62

67

77

86

91

93

100

184.7
120.7
210.8
451.3
342. 9

257.4

224.0

69.5

106. 0
130.6
112.5
118.9

78.8

11.2

6.8

15 8

7.9

6 5

12.9

27.6

52.1

93. 5

231.2

342.7

304. 1
208.5
025,4
275. 6

85. 9
177. 3

1D2
121

158

192

194

1(':4

121

87

76

70

69

59

42

23

11

7

0

7

12

23

45

83

129

166

192

212

210

182

131

li'4

SOLAR YEARLY.

.-^.

1850 |3iS*

^ ,

K. N.

1857 +3N* Av.

.-A

K.

N.

275. 7
329.7

139.9

170.4

193.6

94.0

242.0

102.2

118.5

164.3

200.7

33.8

84.0

36.8

5.3

16.4

1.8

0.0

33.2

2.1

20.8

118.6
261.2
223.1
157.6
362.8
220.5
101.5
214,0
218.6

192

186

101

138

127

1-^3

119

112

109

110

99

75

49

31

17

9

7

8

11

22

50

97

135

150

142

134

131

134

150

174

238.9

112.6

121.8

161.4

109.0

192.9

131.1

92.2

10.7

147.6
191.8

108.8

33.7

64.9

12.3

5.2

5.9

0.0

111

86.1

35.3

35.7

63.5

148.0

74.8

140.4

143,2

341.4

177.8

143.5

160
143

131

130

135

133

116

94

91

114

132

118

81

49

25

12

7

V2

26
39
46
54

72

I'B

148

152

158

156

142

119

97

90

95

95

80
55

109

1.35
174
200
195

177

17
9

7

9

16

27

47

80

116

141

153

166

177

171

154

146

t,

>

1855, '58, '61, '64, '67, 70 ;

1856, '59, '02, '65, 'OS;

1857, '60, -63, '66, '69

~^' J -^J^^^^Jl^J^^j^^.

_ ^ I^A

■ _M jr. — ^'-^^-b.■

h^VLLSO f^^rJi^M--^-J-jV^w*-^' J ■.-Ll>nY n-.^w ^O-ni Lw^r^-■rA^d■

w-mtfjvJ-^j-^

_\-n-ii_ ry ^■£

isn-]

179

[Chase,

^ '

any appreciable lunar or planetary influence upon rainfall or other atmo-
spheric phenomena, is based on the different, and sometimes contradictory,
results obtained by different investigators, from observations in different
places and at different times ; another arises from the difficulty of con-
ceiving any tidal or other force adequate for the production of any con-
siderable disturbance. Nevertheless, such of the objectors as are familiar
with Howard's discussion of the moon's influence upon the barometer;
Sabine's, of lunar disturbances of terrestrial magnetism; or Schwabe's and
Wolf's, of the dependence of sun-spots upon planetary configtirations,
seem to admit— at least I am not aware that any of them deny— the prob-
ability of the conclusions which those eminent observers have severally
expressed.

If it is conceivable that Saturn, Jupiter and Venus can in any way
affect the cloudiness, or amount of spotted surface of the the sun, not-
withstanding the immense preponderance of his attractive, magnetic and
other supposable forces, it is surely much more easy to imagine that they
may similarly affect the meteorologic phenomena of the earth, which op-
poses an antagonizing mass only j^^V^^ (according to Newcomb's esti-
mate) as great as that of the sun. If the lunar tides of our atmosphere
are of sufficient magnitude to affect the barometer, the consequent waves
must effect a blending of aerial currents of different temperatures and

TABLE 11.

Corresponaent Itainfalls at IJshon, in Lvrmr and Solar jM'nods.

o

LUNAR MONTHLY,

-^

J^-

D CO II.

1855-60.

..-A

1

2

5
(->

7

8

9

10
H
12
18

H
15
16
17

IS

« 4 *

]

20

21

22
2;:J
24
2o

9t

o,->

27
28
29
30

115 0
146.8
110.2
108.4
158.7
124.7
] 02. 9
1 58. 2
173.5
1G2.4
231.9

235. 5
05. 2

o

'. . .

216.2
lis. I

104.4

1 09. 1
202.7

239. 2
120.4
104.9
117.3

O0.8

58 6

87.8

175.8

140.2

1 M ; 8

180.4
121.2

87

85

84

85

87

87

90

09

112

126

130

145

140

128

119

121

130

133

1-23

102

81

65

55

56

70

86

93

\y■^

92
90

1801-65.

N. 11. W. R. N.

1866-70. AV.

N.

170.1

154.2

134 a

147 0
106.3
108 0
102.8
172-8

93.3
180,3
120.1
103.6
2641
153.6
152.3
193 6
136.6
165.0
246.6
234. 4
251.9
135.3

92.5
158 0
182. 3

112.8
143 4

148.9
145.5
141.2

97
95

90

83

76

73

77

83

87

93

103

117

124

118

109

105

108

119

135

141

128

105

91

90

93

91

90

91

93

95

178.7

151.9

150 4

96.6

110.0

84 7

69 6

53.4

76 0

73.3

.M).9

98.1

164.5

102.9

154.8

91,3

117.6

114.7

176.8

144.6

113.0

4(1.3

20.4

70.8

78.8

28.3

72 4

1 33. 2

129 8

97 9

141

144

1.33

117

101

86

73

66

66

69

79

99

lis

125

121

IIG

118

128

137

127

99

69

55

£6

59

^

81.

103
118
130

104

103

98

01
8(5
81
81
85
91

04
Hi)
1 23
128
123
116
114
118
127
131
123
104

82

m

70

i i

84

SO
05

00-
102

SOLAH TE.VFILT.

..A.

1855-60.

222 .4

236. 6
23L0
369.9
218.5
103.1
22:'.. 8
162.3

126,6
209 6
124.2

in.8

112.5

75.8
3.9

15.8

.8

.3

21 2

38.2

49.4

76.9

218.4
350. 6

2 5.7
298.5
458.0
223 6
134.8
179.3

131

148

162

162

142

119

1'8

105

101

97

88

74

59

40

22

10

0

7
14
24

40
79
124
159
179
194
191

im

130
121

1861-65. 1866-70. Av.

R. N. R. N. N.

298.2

208.5

7«.6

290. 0

283.5

236.7

226 9

516

7:;.0

98.6

U('.9

] 63. 5

52.6

31.4

11.8

7.7

6.2

.1

1.5

68.6

22 0

60 8

261.7

254 0

312.1

156.8

238, 4

233. 9

177.9

141.4

150
144
145
162

175
163
128
89
71
76
85
79
56
31

J 5

7

5

7

15

26

47

86

136

171

176

165

156

149

143

145

178.7
118.9

168.9
129 2
143.5
204.5
,147,0
60.0
40.7
134.3

239 9

46.2

31.4

6.7

8.7

, 13 9

8.6

6.1

34 5

90

36 8

110.1

. 75.8

109.2

8.7

45.9

298.7

261 . 0

165.0

218,7

171

-m Ww ^w

loo
146
148
154
150
126

96

95

J18

124
91

47
21

12
10
12

15

20
31

51

72

79

73

79

124

18.5

211

2'0
185

146
148

152

lr8

156

142

119

97

90

95

95

80

55
?-2
17

9

^

0
16
27
47
80
116
141

15; J

166
177
171
1'4
146

^■^■^^^,.^ir

w

^

Chase ]

180

[Aug. 1^

different degrees of humidity; and in consequence of the sti-atification of
the upper and lower winds, this blending offers a unique opportunity for
the practical study of the opposite tidal tendencies in deep and shallow
fluid seas or envelopes. If the lunar are as unmistakable as the solar
modifications of magnetic phenomena, the analogies which have been
pointed out, by Messrs. Baxendell and Bloxam between magnetic and
pluvial and by myself between pluvial and auroral curves, arc indicative
of other possible lunar influences which are equally unmistakable. If the
diificulty of conceiving an adequate cause for a supposed phenomenon were
to deter us from inquiring whether an apparent dependence were real or
illnsory, all progress in science would become impossible. Finally, if it
can be shown that solar rain-curves exhibit different, and often contra-
dictory inflections, similar to those which are objected to in the lunar
curves, and if a consistency of disagreement can be shown between the
lunar results at two given stations, accompanied by a consistency of agree-
ment between the results in diflerent cycles at the same station, the ar-
gument from apparent contradiction will be deprived of all its force.

I have no hope of thoroughly convincing any one v^ho is skeptical of
lunar influence on the weather by deductions from observations at one
or two, or a half do:^cn stations, but I beheve that any one who will ex-
amine, carefully and impartially, the tables I have already published,
based on observations in India, Great Britain, Portugal, Canada and
different portions of the United States, will at least be willing to admit

TABLE III.

hUhon lialnfaU in Synodic years of Jitjnter.

K .1. ch

~i r m

■A ni

4 98

5 89

a 81

7 7qi

0 110

lu 139

11 156

12. 146

13...; 119

14 99

In 09

16 108

17...... ...w* 109

IK 96

19 80

20 67

•21. 63

22 45

23 ^- 53

24 T2

25 84

2r> 83

27 86

28...... 106

29 132

30 145

(X3
CO

1~-

co

fr4

>,

0

<!

o
'A

si

177

148

101

65

48

43

43

45

45

45
44

39
36
37
37
36
45

98
123
131
129
134
153
168
196
200
191
183
1S3

45
41

49

70

99

138

146

151

150

143

141

154

165

146

112

11)0

114

132

138

127

101

73

58

58

60

60

nt
64

61
53

139

121

87

62

61

70

78

84

95

106

105

90

77

74

83

100

113

117

121
126
ll7

95
79
79
95

117
128
125
124
133

70

74

78

79

78

80

89

96

97

103

121

137

133

115

94

89

104

125

131

115

91

78

87

lU

127

123

110

100

90

76

110

93

90

94

97

■ 96

102

112

117

112

121

1.43

151

124

81

51

46

60

79

76

91

112

114

99

93

110

130

130

117

1C3

86

76

76

81

88

96

103

108

113

116

112

98

84

81

88

99

108

110

99

m

84
90
107
112
113
115
121)
122

1871.1

181

[Chase.

that the question is an open one. And if he will compare my previous
tahulations witli those which accompany the present paper, he may, per-
haps, find any lingering skepticism shaken, however prejudiced or invet-
erate it may he.

For convenience of comparison, I represent, in each instance, the mean
rainfall for the entire period under consideration by 100, and any devia-
tion from the mean, whether of excess or deficiency, is denoted by the
addition or subtraction of a corresponding percentage. The smoothing
by successive means is uniform in ail the tables. 1 invite special atten-
tion to the columns of lunar rainfall at Lisbon, in each of the first two
tables, representing two different sets of three independent periods, averag-
ing 64 months, a cycle which I have hitherto supposed too short to yield
any satisfactory results. If there is no causal nexus, it is difficult to imagine
any possible reason for the striking similarity between the ordinates for
the different cycles, a similarity which I think quite as striking as that
between the solar curves at the same station for independent periods of
similar duration. If the lunar disturbances are considered as merely
tidal, while the solar are partly tidal, but principally thermal, their rela-
tive magnitudes suggest interesting comparisons between centrifugal and
centripetal forces, analogous to those which I have hitherto had the

honor of presenting to the Society.

The resemblance between the independent curves in Table III. is not
very marked ; but the yearly mean is curiously like the yearly averages of
the lunar monthly ordinates in Tables I. and IL, if we construct the
curves so as to compare the ordinate of Jupiter's opposition, No. 16, with
the ordinate of lunar conjunction, No. 1, and we vers<1.

TABLE IV.

Comparative Daily and Yearly liainfaJJs.

r-l- r-

td

*

O ^ June.

1 " isT

2 Ill

3 92

4 77

5 69

6 71

7 79

8 81

9 80

10 68

11 56

12 55

13 66

14 92

15 131

16 172

17 1B6

1« 162

19 123

20 98

21 90

22 92

23 102

2-1 118

PniLAnELPIIIA.

_^ _^;

GREENWICH.

h «^

,.A.„.

Dec. April. Oct.

Averse Ave'p:e
Daily. Atimri

Jan. July. April. Oct.

92

120

111

73

130

112

72

127

103

71

lis

97

71

103

106

73

86

105

81

77

• 105

95

78

110

102

78

125

96

70

140

87

64

143

85

67

135

90

74

117

100

82 "

93

116

94

71

ISO

111

58

144

121

55

133

121

56

113

122

65

102

125

79

106

123

97

119

106

106

121

93

107

112

101

lOS

91
91
93

98
105
110
113
113
112
109
105
102

103

106
109

108

101

98

92

87
85
87
90
91

92
89
89

90

91
94
99
105
110
113
112
110
109
111
112
108
101
95
91
95
96
96
96
95

53
54
63
66

64
65

72

74

72

78

99

127

141

131

111

97

98

116

145

170

173

150

110

72

92
103
107
112
118
129
139
140
136
133
128
109
89
94
1 26

lis

129
88
56
40
30
32

49
73

120
143

169
179

I.JO

no

74
60
59
()3
65

66
72

101

115
125

124
111
90
73
66
76
98

9.)
126
148
146

122

9^^

82
75

79
85

82
72
(>5
66

76

97

121

is:^
129

121
112

85
84

H^

i

! IJII 1 1

>

11;

■' ',

Chase,]

182

[Aug. 18,

The tendency to opposition between rainfall curves on opposite sides of
tJie Atlantic, of which I have already submitted some illustrations to the
bociety (a?iie, p 08, &c.), is interestingly shown near the solstitial and
equinoctial periods, by Table lY.* Columns 6 and' 7 of the same table
indicate a similarity between the curves of daily and annual rainfall at
fjiilacfelphia, which lends additional interest to my comparison of pluvial
and auroral curves {ante, pp. 121-33).

Explanation of Figures.

The horizontal lines represent the average rainfall : each vertical space
represents a deviation of .3 of the mean value ; each horizontal spnce
represents two days in the abscissas of the lunar curves, or -^. of a year
in the abscissas of the solar curves. The lunar curves bco-in and end vyith
the day of new moon ; the solar curves with January 1.

!!!!!li!!!eiillllliiiiiiiBin

iLfnwMM I i.fcJi^^ tiAjy- ii hlL

MM

Fig. 1. — Lu'iiar dcrveSi

December to March, inclusive ; continuous line.
April to July, inclusive ; In-okiMi hue.
August to JNovember, inchiwive ; dotted Hue*

jSolar Curoes.

18,'>5, '5S, '(U, '64, '()?, '70; continu
18o<J, '51). '03, '(i5, -68; broken line.
1857, 'GO, 'G3, '(i(>, '09 ; dotted line.

ous line.

1855-'G0 ; continuous line.
18(>1~'G5 ; broken line.
18Gti-'70; dotted line.

* I'ublishod by pcrmisMon of n-of. Benjamin Poirce, iinpf. V. H. Coast Survey.

jf

1871.]

183

[Obs. Inf. D, Luiz.

c6

V

o
^

o

GO

LISBON RAINFALL.

■ ■ ■ r-v^

Day.

Dec.

1

Jan. :

Fet).

r

Mar.

Ap.

r

May.

1

June.

July.

Aug.

1
Sept. i

Oct.

1
1

Nov.

Total

1 '

4.3

4.3

0.8

16 5'

0.3

26.2

2

26.7

0.5

1.1

1.5

29.8

3

1.9

2.2

0.5

14.3

2.2

0.4

1

21.5

4

4.9

8.1

19.5

32

i

1-3.2

8.9,

1

57,8

5

8.6

2.7

2.3

1

i

1.3

1

U.9

6

0.5

5.7

0.3

7.6

1

1

14.1

7

0.5

4.0

0.3

1

0.6

16.2

21.6

.^ S

3.6

3.3

8.6

6.5

21.9

g 1?

7.6

1.3

1

2.4

52.8

4.4'

68.5

8.9

■

13.2

0.5

2.2

1.5

263

rn' 11

2.4

'

0.3

0.1

2.8

ci 12

27.0

,

1

27.0

1 13

0.5

23 8

0.2

13 0

37.5

P 14

0.3

3.5

1

2.2

1

13 5

19.5

5 15

8.6

03

0.3

1
1

2.7

0.7

; 12.6

^. 16

0.6

24.6

16 2

1.1

1

!

1
1

m

^ 42.5

S 17

08

2.5

8.1,

■

17.0

28.4

" 18

■

3.0

19.2

0.3

63

2.3

311

r^' ly

2.4

7,3

4.3

■

0.3

0.3

10.7

25.3

c5 20

i

1

6.0

3.5

1

!

■ 9.5

® 21

^ 22

}

i

62

11.1

1

1

■ 16.4

33 7

0.5

14.3'

4.6

3.8

1
1

20.0

11.9

lu.9

66.0

23

1

; 0.8

: 6.5

0.5

0.8

92

13.0

30.8

24

r

! 15.9

-

0.6

1.0

17.5

25

1 '

0.5

2 7

8.1

5.6

16.9

26

17.3

1

■ 18.9

31.3

]

8.4

75.9

27

19.7'

1

: 27.2

3.0

i

0.8

0.5

5.0

56.2

28

1.1

0.5

7.3

4.0

4.0

16.9

29

9.7

9-2

14.6

30.5

6.6

70.6

30

■

r

0.5

0.8

A

0.3

o.s

O.S

2.0

5.2

31

1

1

217.1

55,6

1.1

1
1

1.3
198.5

2.4

Sum

7.3

55 9

126.5

90.61

1.1

13.5

J

0.8

1

i

94.1

, 69.9'

1
1

930 -9

Day.iDec. :Jan. Fel).

Mar. Ap. May. June.. July. Aug. : Sept.

1

2
3
4

6
6
7

8

9

10

11

12

13
14

15
16
17

18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Sum

8.6

1.0
1.6

0.7
67
4.9
0.8
27.5
3.4

0.3

0.8
3.7
5.8
46.8
1.9

12.5

122.0

8.5
7.3

30.6

3.6

28.3

9.4

12.9

12.9

12.9

11.4

6.2

0.8
0.3

6.2

11.3

0.8

40.9

I8.7

8.4

11.7

0.5

1.6

6.3

24.8

7.9
3.9
3.6

16.8
3.3
6.9

10.8
5.1
6.8
1.7
7.0
3.4

16.8
1.8
1.1

18.3

7.7*

3.8

0.2'

l.ll

2.6:

6.0!

].5

11.7

5.4

43 4^

26.5:

12.1^

62
3.2
0.8

9.9
3.8
0.3

11,8
24
0.9

6.7
7.6
0.7
6.2

0.3

0.7
0.3

Oct.

Nov.

6.1

0.3
4.1

18.9
5.5
0.6
0.6

16.5

6.0i
35.9,

6.8;

1.3;

3.6

1.1

2.3
1.5
0.3

1.0
6.2

1.3

1-3

0-1
0-1

1.2

4.4

0.8
0.6
0.4
50.9
4.1

1.1

3.5

Total

J..D

1.9

0.7

291.6J 99.8: 151.9 131.9

16.9

0.0

0.0

4.3

9.2
0.1
4.3

6.3

0.1

37 0
14 6
38.9
15.2
83.1
13.9
24 2
29.6
17.0
14,4
10.4
14.6
24.2
17.8
24.6

57.1
42.3
68.2
37 0
39.3
17.3

0.5
22.8
33 6
34.8
68.5
72.2

8.6
12.9

17-8

8.51 19.4 6iV7 4.2' 912.9

I

J

immmt-

Obs. Inf. D. Luiz.]

184

[Aug. 18,

\l

till

o

p

o

CC

ft

LISBON RAINFALL.

Day.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Ap.

1

7.9

May.

June. July.

1

1

.. Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

1

2.4

1
1

3.6

1

3.2

2

5.0

8.3

0.6

0.3

0.2

J

0.9

3

8.5

1.3

• 5.0

07

1.0

4

0.1

1.3

0.2

i

1.3

6

10.5

0.4

0.3

1

6

3.0

7.6

0.5

7

■ 0.1

1.1

1.1

7.6

^ ^

07

6,6

1.1

0.7

0.2

S 9

20.7'

J

39.5

3.5

1-3

i

r

1.0

"1 10

6.7

30.0

1.1

14.9

f

1.0

- 11 :

0.9

1.4

12.2

1.3

g 12

2.0

6.5

i 0.2

Q 13

11.3

4.8

0.5

3.2

0.7

o 14

0.6

35

0.1

0.1

0.7

■2 15

1-2

0.2

0.6

Jg 1*5

1

6.2

10.0

g 17

1.9

4.3

15.6

.- 18

7.4

4.8

12.0

":: 19

5.1

17.5

g 20

0.3

1.7

17.3

1

-

+

5.9

Q 21

5.U

9.2

0.2

1.7

2.0

J

22

1.5

1.9

1

0.7

1.0

I

23

0.5

0.2

1

10.4

1

25.9

24

8.1

0.7

11.1

2H.0

1

0.3

4.3

25

0.5

6.5

0.2

i

1.5

1
1

3.2

19.9

26

8.9

1.2

0.2

2.4

!

11,0

27

09

0.5

2.1

1

0.9

28

2.6

1.1

1
1

1
1

0.3:

1

29

6.2,

1.4

30

12.2

0-7

3.1

31

5,8
i "55.4

i

5.4

16.0

1

4.0

Snm

89.3

128.1

69.0

67.2

34.6:

0.2

33.1

17.7

82.7

Nov. Total

17.7

6.5
27,6'

6.2i
'10.6

1.8

4.3
28.9
11.5

28.0
0.6

12-0
1.0

21.5
35.4
11.4

34.8

21.8

44.1

8.1

21.8

11.1

9.9

9.3

66.0

55 5

15.8

87

20.5

4.9

6.3

45.1

33.3

24.2

22.6

25.2

18.1
.'i.l

65.0

51.1

43.8
24.7
4.4
25.5
43.0
27.4
15.2

224.01 812.3

Day. I Dec.

1
2
3

4
6
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

17
18

19

2U
21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

Jan.

Feb.

21.1
0.4

Mar.

8.8

4.8

2.5
7.5
0.6
5.7
0.3
8.1
8.5
10.0
18.3
U.8

30.5

15.0

H.8

7.5

Ap.

May. June. July.

13.8

9.6

8.7

Sum 35.3 31.9

12.0
17.6

4.0
20.8
14.7
1.9
67.
0.6
6.2
4.0
62

0.3

0.2

0.6

4.8
3 3
1.4

0.2

0.7
0.2

5.0

1.8

2.5

5.0
6.0
29
0.2

0.1

2.0

157.0

0.2
8.4

2.0
5.7

77.91 13.1

22.2

0.2

Aug,

1

Sept.

Oct,

/

1

1

1
1

1

1

1
1

0.6

12.6
0.1

21.5

2.6

7.5

Nov. Total

17.3
0.8

2.9

3.1

1.1
0.2

0.1 3.9

29.3

8.2

6.6

7.0

2.3

1.9
17.1

7.9

51.71 101.4

1.2
40.5
87.2

0.4
20.4

7.8

4.7
55.9

0.6

6.7

60.9

0.8

10.2

3.7

22.0

22.8

26.9

27.9

14.6

6.3

2.0

9.7

13.2

414,5

31.1

15,9

2S.1

41.5

8.9

0.6

15.3

4.8

55 0

64.3

13.4

43.2

8.6

4,7

57.9

1.'2

40.2
88.8
45.1
45.8
32.9
38.6
50. 2
42.6
28.7
30.4
25. 6
15.2
12.6
15.2

5.7
912.1

)

j\^^

y

1871.]

185

LISBON RAINFALL,

[Obs. Inf. D. Luli.

)

Day.

Dec.

Jan.

h'el,.

Mar.

I

Ap.

May.

Jane.

July.

Aug.

1

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Total

1

0.5

2.2

9.0

11.7

2

0.3

0.2

03

8.3

^ 1

^ 4 1-

3

0.5

+

3.8

L3

0.8

15.4

4,

4

23.3

L2

L5

20.3

E

46.3

5

2.9

LO

4.4

0,6

1

8.9

/~\ J 4

6

2.0

0.6:

12.2

9.6

244

7

c5 8

6.0

13.8

0.8

20.6

0.5

1

1

3.4

19.3

23.2

X.P ^ 1— '

3.9

■

4.2

8.1

13.6

0.3

08

14.7

-n- -L, ^^^

^ 11

o 12

!

0.5
0.2

0.2

19.1

7.9

/

20.0
40.7

20.7
67.9

P IS

o H

*- 15

^ 16

TO 17

9.8

'•m' T ^^^

0 5

10.7

0.8
1 14

130

6.2

1.5

35.8
8.1

25. 4
2.0

vm t/

0.1

1 2.9

1

0.4
0.4

12.2
9.3

15.5
25.4
1L8

^ 18

13.7

28.1

0.3

0.5

42.6

1 19

^ 20

P 21.

22

2?,
24
2.'>
26
27

L9
L2

15.0
3.1

1.8
17.3

0.3

19,3
5.3
42
3.3

0.1
1.0

6.6
2.7

0.8

1

5.1

11.0
L6

23.0

20.7
9.5
42
0-5
8.7

22.9

33.8
2^1.6

38.5
17.5
12.8
23.0

0.2

1

0.3
18.0

1

1

1

1

17.0

; 0.1
0.8

0.6
35. 8

28

i 0.2

0.1

0.4

1.7

1
1
1

LO

3L7'

^'■\ 1

29

^w* ■

t' ^^"

4.1

19.9.

3.4

1
1

1
1

f\ ri^

1
1

27.4

30

5.5

LO

4.2

12.4

1

0,6

23. (

31

3.3

1

2G.-1

i

3.7

0.3

L8

0.3

1 ■ -■ ■-

7.3

Sum

73.1

, 28.5

5.6

1104.6

9L6

70.5

08

1 229.0

76.1

708 3

Day.

Dec.

1

Jan.

J^'eb.

Mar.

Ap.

May.

f
June. ' July.

: Aug.

! Sept.

1

Oct.

1

Nov.

i'otal

i

r

1

0.4! 2 .^1

0.1

14.3

r

1

2.7

21

22.1

1 J— t ^ jr\

2

\j ■ J_

12 6

n^ ^ ^^

1

L3

'

63

L7

' 21.9

3
4

14.4

7.7
2.4

12.1

77

1

1

0.6

34.2

10.7

5

6,3

1.8

^m f^ ^r

8.1

7

5.1

3.2,

1

4.4

0.4

1
1

12.5
3.6

01 9

80

8 S

55 0

11.2I a-3'
i 0.4

3.9
2.9,

1

4.7

2.5

1
1
1

G.3

1

Lo
2.4

17.1
19.2'

10

1 9

1

23.5

2.1.4

^ 11

J^^ Vh*

2.4

1

r

1
1

LG

9.8

13 8

4 -*--*-

? 12

1.6

0.3

2.0

2.1

1.5

1

1.0

' 8.5

p i;^>

n 14

-■1. ■ ^ y

37.1

W ^— '

1.3

3.5

1

14.8

56.7

0.3

2.7

1
1

0.2

3.2

"" 1.5

\_/ * ^^

0.1

1

5.2

10.1:

1
1

7.2

22.6

"2 16

4.7

■r ^ ^ —

1

1

■t

1

14 8

19 5

2 17

XV 1

4.6

2,1

0.7

1

4.9

12.3

^ 18

12.6

■

LO

12.2

\

0.8

L5

28.1

^. 19

0.4

7.0

1.2

8.6

4 -L ^ ^

§ 2i)

6.1

0.0

3.1

13 0

/ L n

P 21

0.2

^ y^

0.2

22

3.7

2.4

LO

7.1

23

0.5

0.9

4

1.2

2.6

24

o.n 2.0

4.5

n

0.5

1.2

8.5

25

22.0: 0.0

12.7

30.9

1

5.7

72.5

1 r^ £-k t^

2fi

0.2

1

15.5

I

J

4.9

1 20.6

27

3.7

2.3

0.5

h

12.0

1

6.4

24.9

28

4.e

1

^ xrf

5.1

L2

; 3.8

9.4

2f.l

29

3.2

^^ ^^^

7.7

5.4

: 10.3

30

0.1

0.6

1

2.8

1 3.5

31

2.1

3.6

1

. 17.7

1L5

5./

Sum

. 61^.1 117.5

27..'^

; 18.9' 85.8

27.0

' 2.5

10.1 3L4

. 144.4

.'. 560.2

A.

P. s

. — \t

3Ij. :

:ri —

X

■ \

'^1

_^

I

I ■ L

w

Obs. Inf. D. Lniz.]

186

[ Aug. 18,

u

s

LISBON KAINFALL.

Day.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17
18
19
20
21
■22
23
24

Dec. Jan. Feb.

^

26
27
28
29
30
31

17.4

23.4

12.1

4.4

4,3

15.8

28.5

17.5

1,2

2.6

1.2

0.2

0.4

15.4

1.0

Mar. Ap.

2.6
0.3

I

1.3
0.8

6.0
10 4

6.4
30.3
14.6

0.3

7.1
13.6

1.0

6.1

20.5

2.0

3.2
15 4

3.0
43. 3

19.7

0.2

48
2.1

3] - 5
5. 6
1.1
18.5
29.9
3.3
7.1
2.6
7
3.7
0.2

2.9

5.7

Sum' 223.1 51.6 226.8

13.8
1.0

1,3
9.4
4.0

1.6

4.0

O.G

31.8
1.0

May. June.

1.0

7.2

16-3
7.3
6.4

2.6

2.8

6.0
24.7

5.6
0.2

Jniy

Aug.

2.7

0.2

1.2
4.2

2.8

0.5

2.6

Sept. Oct.

0.4

14.8 59.4i 80.1 11.1

3.5

2.9

1.6

12.6

9.2

Nov.

0.3

Total

4.8
1.6

25.7
0.8

5.2

36.3
10.8

3.8

1.3
0.1

2.4
3.7

15.0

14.0

6.8

22. 5

49

6.5

16.4

14.0
2.8
5.9
6.1

7.2

15.8

4.8

1.4

31. G
6.6

0.4
4.4
1.2

10. 3
37.0

27.5
4.8
20.2
24.8
45.5
44.1
44.5
64.7
7-9
10.7
10.8
45.9
68.1
38.6
45.8

42.4
3 O.G
50.7
20. 5
40.8

15.7

37 3
22.7
25 4
52.4
74.5

7.1
15.0

6.5

0.0: 24 0' 1G«.,V 118.9 8819

Day.

Dec. Jan.

FeD.

Mar. Ap

Q
o

oo

A

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

0.2

1.7
6.7

22

19.6

1.4

0.9

24.2
1.0

3.2
0.8

1.5
1.3
0.9

23.5
13. 5
13.1

4.2

17.7

1.5

12.6

0.9

0.2

2.1
5.1

1.4 25 8

0.4

4.9
3.2 32.2
1.6
0.4

17.1
15. 5
16.3
35.7
34.9
0.7
17.6

15. 8
3.4

1.0

22.8

13.1

31.5

9.5

0.1
11.0

2.2

2.3

May. June.' July.! Aug. Sept Oct.

0.3

5.3
46
5.3

0.4

14.8

Sural 58.6

11.4

39.6

14.7

17.6
0.2

0.2

5.3

0.5

Nov. i Total

2.7

15.5
5.6]
4.9

10.2
0.3
5.3

17.4

0.6

0.1
3.3

0.8

0.3
2.4

115.9' 189.9 '228.2! 20.5 34 2

1.5

1.0

4.8

8.5

0.6

1.3

5.3

14.2

8.3
0.6

0.2
5.8

2.2

9.4

4.2

O.Oi 40 8

^

2.5

17.4

16.1

1

0.2

1.4

27 2

8.8

6.2

14.7

19. 0'

31.2'

104.9

26.0

34.0

19.8

.~\5

10.6
4.2

18.3
4.7

17 8
8.2
2.8

12.3

27.3
1.0

48.0

38. 5
16.3
50.9
73.7
46.8
18.0
216
52.8
61.7
6.8
22.0
88.6
18.8
11.8
43.0
10.0

830. 8

1

1871. ]

O

o

GO

ft

187

LISBON KAINFALL.

[Obs. Inf. D. Luiz,

1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

9
10

11
12
13
14

In

16
17
18
19
20
21.
22
23
21
25
26

27
28

29
30
31

Sum

6.6
22.1

18.7

2.5

11.

G1.2

1.3

24.8'
34 41
2.0
9.0
1.1
3.0
24.2!
1.3!

4.2

5.1
2.6

0.3

4.3

4.0
41.0
24.8

2.1
12.3

0.6

a. 2

4.8
8.0
1.2
1.1
7.7
0.1
1.0
0.5

Day. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Ap. May. June. July/ Aug. ' Sept. , Oct. Nov. Total

0.2
0.6

2.2

0.2

2.5

0.1

05

3,4

17.0
26.0

66
17.1

2.8

1.8
4.6

0.2

0.6

3.5

1.8
2.2

113.0' 4.6 11T.4: 5.71 73.5 10.71 4.0 50.0

46.8
2.6

0.6

, 1.9

8.6

1.;

o

0.5
0.3
1.1
1.4
2.0

4.6

1.4

1.8
19.5
11.8

2 2
17.3

1.0

4.4

0.3

2.5
5.0

1.3

0.2

1.6

1.0

1.2

7.2

6.6
29.0

86.7
59.2

4.1
21.3

3,1
13.0
50.4
21.3

9 6
22.7
19.5
4.5
1.0
0.5

0.5

1.5

3.4

20.7

28.5

15 2

22.7

10.0

52.4

2.6

4.1

2.5

25.3

2.8

21.9 68-7 11.0 1 544.7

CO

o

CO

p

Day.'Dec. Jan, 'Feb. Mar

1
2
3
4

5
6

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

24.0

0.6

20 3

3.8
211

3,2
1.9

0.8

Slim! 0.8

74.9

0.4
9.3

6.1;
34

4.1
9.9

16.8
3.3
8.6

10.3
0.3
7.1

9.2

0.4
18.8

04
17.0
17.3

1.5
14.4

1.5

0.5

19.0

13.5

15.1

67

0.2

31.0
5.9
1.1

Ap.

7!) 6 173.5

0.1
6.5
7.2
4.2
5.9
0.4

5.9

11.3

4.2

4.3

7.5

May. June., July. Aug

4.0

0.8

12.(1

3.4

12.0

7.0
10.5

1.5

7.0

6.6
0.6

2.7

0.2

■

0.2
15.8

0.4

Sept. ' Oct. Nov

16.8

57.5 51. 2i 16.9i 0.2

0.1

9.2!
14.9

0.2

16.8

8.2

1.3

17.2

7.0

2.8
13.0

4.9

0.9

16.5'
3.5
9.4

32.1
7.5

17.3

27.5
.5.8

28.1
7.8

11.3
0.2

30.1

10.3

0.9

2.4

0.4
5.0

3.0

0.2
0.2

12.6

11,0

12.3

4.0
6.0

1.7

0.3

Total

2.5.3
.3.7
24.2
26.4
0.4
19.8
58.7
12.2.

.1

13.3
3.9

27.6
7.2

10-1
6.3

19.6

15.9

a5.9

28.0
30.4
50.1
32.8
74.8
60.3
28.0
56.5
28.4
26.8
7.3
30.3
12.6

40.8 262.7 60.0' 834-9

t

rjj-k X-.B

III

Obs. Inf. D. Luiz.]

188

[Aug. 18,

LISBON RAINFALL.

Bay,

Dec. 1

Jan.

Feb.

7.9

Mar.
0.1

Ap.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Total

1

0.0

E

2.3

19.3

2

0.5

3.5

0.4

4.4

3

0.]

4.4

11.1

0.8

16.4

i

4.1

%

*

2,2

w

16.2

22.5

5

0.8

1L4

0.6

5.G

18.4

6

5.0

LI

11.2

n

50. 6

6.0

73.9

7

10.4

26.4

35.7

72. 5

trf 8

9.1

1.7

6.5

11.0

30.7

59.0

OT 0

6.2

22.1

6.9

11.0

G0.6

106. 8

^. 10

3.6

0.4

10.2

19.5

33.7

J. . -

1 11

n.9

L6

LO

0.2

14.7

g 12

3.2

37.8

LO

8.8

11.2

56.5

P 13

81.2

0.5

25.9

2.1

1.1

60.8

o 14

23.8

L2

0.4

69

3.0

0.5

35.8

- 15

0.1

1.9

3.6

3.1

8.7

^ 10

5.0

4.8

4.6

3.]

X

18.1

S 17

96

5.3

L2

0.1

7.8

0.2

24.2

'I IR

0.7

7.9

■

]3.9

4.3

17.0

43.8

'I 19

2.4

1

2.7

LO

0.9

12.0

lao

§ 20

35. 5

6.6

LO

7.2

LO

5L3

Q 21

13.4

2.1

4.0

3.4

2(1..^)

8.5

61.9

22

0.1

0.8

8.2

1.9

11.0

28

0.4

i 18.3

L6

0.8

15.8

36.9

2-4

0.4

7.3

H

0.4

8.1

25

9.3

L5

41.0

51.8

26

0.8

LO

2.9

. 4.7

27

8.8

4.9

0.2

0.1

14.3

28.3

28

2.1

■

0.8

r

L8

7.4

12.1

29

r

6.0

5.0

2.7

0.8

26.6

41.1

30

7,5

0.7

12.8

2.6

28.6

31

0.9

10.2

^J*o

LO

LO

' 222.4

18.1

Sum

' 116.5

i 204.8

50.3

27.8

102.1

i 20.1 LO 3.3

28.0

236.2 1042.4

Day.

Dec.

Jan,

: Feb.

!

Mar.

9.3

A p.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

i

Oct.

Nov. Total

1

1

4.6

3.4

7.3:

L5

26.1

2

3.3

7.4

14.2

32

1

0.7

28.8

3

12.2

M

13.7

L2^

2.2

1

29.3

4

1

6.3

2.2

34.5

i
1

43.0

5 :

5.7

L9

3.5

9.8

80 5

2.4

1

62.8

6

14.3

■

2.4

e.G

1 LO

24.8

7

3.6

.3.7

0.9

1

i 8.2

1

^ 8

1

0.5

0,4

1
1

1 0.9

^ 9

0 6

5.3

1

2.6

0.4

89

^. 10

7.0

0.7

7.2

■

14,9

-^ 11

14.4

19.7

1.0

35.1

<-J 12

5.9

L8

7.7

S 13

o 14
^ 15

*

2.0

1

' 2.0

1

6.5

4.8

11.3

0.6

16.4

0.6

17.6

'^' 16

11.2

3.2

14.4

oo 17

21.4

1

17.7

39.1

^. 18

1.6

17.6

LO

2.9

23.1

^. 19

5.8

5.8

g 20

0.4

12.9

0,3

22.6

P 21

1.2

0.3

1

0,5

7.4

9.4

22

0.4

A

4.0

4.2

1

8.6

23

14.6

4.3

23.3

0.2

1.3

7.5

5L2

24

L7

0.6

2.3

25

LO

0.8

0.2

0.1

0.9

3.0

26

0.6

10.8

4.5

0.5

0.1

16.5

27

10.0

16.4

23.3

0.7

6,3

3.7

60.4

28

16.0

2.1

6.2

0.3

2L6

29

5.5

OD 0

0.5

2.7

8.8

49.7

30

0.8

1.2

LO

J

0.3

9.0

12.3

31

60.0'

0.8
59. ( ■

95. T

138.5

86.3

12.2

1

J

39.0

13.0

Sum

140. 5 ;

9.0 4.3; 1.8

21.4

21.9 676.9

A ■

I

1871.]

189

LISBON RAINFALL.

[Obs. Inf. D. Luiz.

L>ay.

Dec.

Ian.

F

Feb.

Mar.

Ap.

May.

June. 1

1
July.

0.3

Aug.
5.9

Sept.

Oct.

1
1

1

1
Nov.

1

Total

1

■ ' ■ '"■ 1

6.2

2

6.8

0.2

7.0

3

0.7

0.7

4

4.1

1

!

1
1

4.1

5

0.2

7.9! 0.2

J :

8.3

6

0.1

3.2

1.0

13.3

2.2

1 .

19.8

■H J— t ^"^

7

0.1

8.1

0.2

26.4

19.1

53.9

b^ S

15.8

1

5.1

20.9

^ 9

0.31

0.9

2.4

0.4

0.2

1

4.2

"1 10

19.4

6.3

7.3

33.0

W 1

^ n

0.4

1.9

4.3

1

1

6.6

« 12

0.2

9.2

2.5

0.8

5.4

10.1

18.9

47.1

-^ 15

1.6

14.9

L8

5.4

0.9

0.4

■ 12.6

37.6

J

2.5

12.0

L4

1

5.2,

54.4

75.5

1.2

2.9

(1.6

0.8

■ 48.8!

54.3

^'^ 16

1

22.7

0.2

«

6.2!

29.1

^ 17

23.4

^^^^ '

5.6

0.2

12.5

4L7

^. 18

7.8

12.7

2.2

0.2

22.9

^. 19

14.0

12.3

r

i

0.1

26.4

m 20

18.9

7.2

0.1

0.7

^^ J.

26.9

ft 21

0.1

5.6

0.1

5.8

22

L4

1.4

23

6,9

-

6.9

■ 24

7.5

0.7

L

i

0.3

8.5

4 r~\ ^X

25

1.3

43

6.4

12.0

26

0.8

11.2

12.0

27

4.6

5.2

r

9.8

28

1.4

LO

2.4

29

2.8

1

2.2

5.0

30

0.8

1

f

1.2

2.0

31

7.1

1

1

, 116

1

i
1

1

1

! 154.9

7.1

Sum

20.6

U9.6, 27.0

i 153.7

50.9

a 7

1 7.0

5.9

11.21

6.0

599.1

Uay.

Dec.

I !

Jan.

4

Feb.

1
Mar.

Ap.

1

.. May.

IJuue.

1

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

1

j Nov.

Total

1

21.0

2,4

L8

r

28.2

2

0.7

0.7

3

17.5

1

0.1,

17.6

4

1
1
1

0.4

27 6

4.3

4.9

37.2

5

1
1
1

2.0

0.6

1

2.6

6

10.5

3.9

14.4

7
00 9

1

0. 0

0.8' 20.0

03

1
1

: 21.1

3.4

0.5

2.0

0.1

1
1

!

^a. f^

6.0

"1 10

^^F T -^^

0.3

0.6

9.3

10.2

13.7 i

3.0:

4.8

0.4

4.2

26.1

9 12

^^^ ^^r ^ f

1

0.2

1.9

2.8

0.5

■oA

05 ^^

q 13
^ 14

8.3

3.3

12.7

0.7

.5.9

¥

12.3

18.G

■" 15

9.7

0.2

0.8

15-8

26.5

'^ 16

1.9

15.6

7.0

24.5

1

52 17

01

*

0.4

14.6

15.1

"- 18

0.2

2.7

8.4

22.5

2.0

3.0

38.8

. 19

^# -m ^^

5.0

2.4

5.4

1

w

5.2

^ j^

18.0

8 20

4.5

^^^ ^ ^^r

4.0

12.4

1.0

21.9

ft 21

^^¥ ^ ^^

0.4

h

0.1

16

2.2

4.3

r 1 *-^-

22

5.8

0.8

3.5

0.7

24.3

r ^ B-^

3o.l

23

0.3

4.8

0.2

20

7.3

-1 ^ i*"^

24

4.4

^" ^ '-^

L8

<

8.5

05

lo2

25

16.4

1

9.8

26.2

26

^L ' -^ P .^

7.6

3.5

11.0

27

0.3

0.3

2.4

0.4

3,4

28

8 '

'm' ■ ^i-'

0.8

LO

10.6

29

20

1

1U.4

1.4

13.8

30

31

15.2

15.2

1
1

■i 29-0

16.4

38.3

69.9
15.2

Sum

89 7

40.7 23.5

. 5.0! 42.9

.3.7

11.1

23.2

125.3

16.1

138 0

i 557 2

/

\j_ —f ^^^

I

\

I'M!

'i\

S]

Ol)S. Inf. D. Luiz.]

GO

o

00

00

' 190

LISBON KA.INFALL.

[Aug. 18, 1871.

Day. ! Dec.

o

o

oo

1

2
3
4

5

6

7

8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Sum

Jan.

FeT).

Mar.

Ap.

May.

3.5
0.4
5 2
1.1

02
1.5

7.7

6.0
0.2

5.8
62.7
13.0

2.3
1G7

15.8
0.21
3.2

15.5
2.8
5.8
0.2

13.3
3.0

3.4

0.3
6.3
0.3

12.3 0.1

1.3
17.0

0.6

1.4
0.2

1.0

0.8
2.0

17.7
9.0|
5.01
0.2|

16 0

5.3

13

8.2
0.5

7.0

3.2
3.5

7.1

10.7
7.0
0.1
1.1

0.2

0.2

June. July.

Aug.

1.4

0.7

LI

0.3
0.4

0.4

0.5

202 5

97.5 23.3 35.4

3.3

27.9

10.4

5.4

14.9

0.2

17.9

0.2
0.4

2.3
0.3

0.2

Sept.

Oct.

Nov,

5.0

0.3

0.5
0.2

14
19.4

27.1

3.9
34
0.6

0.7
3.2

0.4

0.3

96.0^ 2.9! 0.21 0.0

Total

6.2

1.8
56

1.0

5.0
9.2
1.9

14.1

7.6
0.5

1.0

1.5
4.1
1.3

0.2

11.2

23.5

8.3

5.6
29.0
16.4
5.6
15
24.3
19.3
20. 5
97.6
26.8
10.0

18.2

5.6

31.2

16.0

4.2
16. S
10.9

8,3

5.1
16.9

7.8
21.7
13.0
12.4
39.1
18.8

5.3

24.5 3.3.4 8.11 550.9

Day.

ft

O

a>

p

1

2
3
4

5

6

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Dee.

Jan-

9.2

99

5.1

7.9

19.5

3.5

1.4
0.8
0.4

0.2

1.5

19.3
7.3
1.7

2.5

1.4

1.0
1.4

0.5
0.6

1.4

0.5

Feb. Mar. Ap. May. June. iJuly

0.3
0.4

0.1

31.2
62
5.4

1.1

4.0

0.9
2.4
O.G
7.5
1.0
5.5

1.8
96
1.0

28.5

Aug.

Sept.

Oct. Nov

21.7

6.6
11.0
14.0
0.5
2.2
27
8.4

0.2
0.1

5.5

2.5

0.8

1.4
1.3

20.4
11.7

39
2.3

8.8

3.0

24.0

Rum 1131.0 49.6

1.2

0.7
6.7
4.0

22
3.6

3.1

0.1
0.4

30". G

0.

0.2

o

^

0.2
3.0
6.4

0.2

5.

0.3

125.11 67.1

3.7

40.6 3.91 2.5

6.7
3.3

8.7

3.1

0.0

8.9

21.3

8.0
1.2

3.0
0.2

Total

0.3
0.8

0.5
0.8

2.0

0.7

0.2
5.7
2.4

1.5

6.8

0.3

9.0

15.5

3.0
5.9

32.6

1.6
54.1

23.4

24.1

14.7

15.9

17.9

34.3

40. 3

8.5

14.4

10.0

9.9

1.2

4.1

9.6

15.6

3.8

42.9

65.4

16. 2

5.9

9.6

40.1

0.2 19.21

99 9

41.5

10.7

14.7

, 5.3

1.8

11.3

1.5

5.1

8.8

38.1

35.7

99.6

, 602.5

191

[Cope.

Remarks on HyrtVs Collection.

{Head before tJie American PhilosopMcal Society.)

Prof. Cope stated tliat this collection embraced 800 skeletons, each
■with the branchial apparatus mounted separately. A large proportion
of the specimens measured two feet long and upwards. The Selachians
■were not very numerous. Among them was to be noted a saw-fish from
the South Pacific Ocean. The Dipnoi were represented by two perfect
specimens of the Protopierics anneciens from Central Africa. The Cros-
sopterygians were present in five specimens of Polypteri—^oiw^ from
Central, others from West Africa. Of Ganoids a fine series of Lepidosteus,
Sturgeons, SfatxiXaria and Amia.

The series of Nile fishes ■was probably the best in existence. The
Mormyridm were especially complete and represented by large specimens.
There were two of Gymnarclms niloiicus, each three feet in length. Many
of the specimens were obtained at Chartum, in Nubia, others came from
Gondokoro on the White Nile between lats. 4° and 5^ N.

The Austrahan fauna was well represented. From it might be selected
the genera Sclmettea, JSfeosilurus, Gadopsis and Para^nshcs. Numerous
species from Samarang, Singapore and Polynesia were included, and the
Osteoglossum formosum from Borneo required especial mention. The
ichthyology of Ilindostan was w^ell represented. The Mediterranean
series was very complete. Among them was to be noted a specimen of
the rare Bumiiusspeciosm, three feet in length, one of Trachypterus liop-
iertis stih larger and an Alepocephaliis rostratus. From the Canary Islands
were some uncommon varieties, as liesiarcJuis nasuius and Cenirolophus

ovalts.

The North American series was good, especially the Gatostomidxe.
There were numerous West Indian species, and a good representation
of South American; chieiiy from Chili, Puerto Cabello, Rio aud the tribu-
taries of the Amazon and Essiquibo. The latter were mostly from Nat-
terer's collections, and embraced many forms of Siluroids, Characins and

Chromids,
The specimens were prepared by Prof. Hyrtl himself, \a hich was an

unequalled guarantee of their completeness in all respects, to the most
minute. The preparation of the supplementary ribs of the Chipeldoi
(herring) was to bo noted as an especially ditficult task which had been
successfully accomplished. The collection appears to have been com-
menced by Prof. Ilyrtl not later than in 1850, and had been an object of
interest to ichthyologists and anatomists for several years. It was prob-
ably the most valuable collection for study in tiiis department in exist-
ence, and Prof. Cope thought it cause of satisfaction that it had arrived
safely in the United States.'"^

* The liberality of Cope Brothers in transporting it free of cliarse from Liverpool to
Philadelpliia was acknowledged.

I
I Ml

192

Prof. Cope remarked upon the peculiar features of some of

the figures on the plates in BenzeFs Eeptilfauna der Gosau-
formation.

Slated Meeting^ Novemter 17, 1871

Present nineteen members.

Mr. FraleYj Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. Phillips and General Tilghman, recently elected, were
introduced to the presiding officer, and took their seats.

4

A photograph of Mr. Chabas was received for insertion in
the Album.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from M.P. Chabas,
dated Chalon sur Saone, Oct. 21, 1871 (Proc. 83, 84, 85); from
the Linnean Society, London, Aug. 2 (xiv., i. 82, 83, 81, 85) ;
and from the Smithsonian Institution (86).

A letter from the Linnean Society announced the sending
of publications.

Donations for the Library were received from the Prussian
Academy, the Montsouris Observatory, the Astronomical and
Linnean Societies, the London Nature, the Boston Public Li-
brary and Dr. Samuel A. Greene, the Franklin Institute, the
College of Pharmacy, the Medical News, the Penn Montlily,
Mr. Latrobe of Baltimore, and the California Academy of
Sciences.

A letter was received from Mr. Henry W. Field, dated Eoyal
Mint, London, Oct, 22(1, accepting his appointment to prepare
an obituary notice of the late Sir John F. AV. Ilerschel.

/

193

\ f

i-

Mr. II. C. Carey read an obituary notice of tlielate Steplieii
Colwell, pursuant to notice.

The death of John Edwards Ilolbroolc, M, D., formerly
Prof Anat. Aled. Coll ,' South Carolina, which took place at
Xorfolk, Mass., Sept. 7, 1871, was announced hy the Sec-
retary.

The death of Ed. W. Brayley, E. R. S., Feb. 1, 1870, was
announced by the Secretary.

A memoir for the Transactions : On the Tours of the Chess
Knight, by M, Serge de Stchoulepnikoff, was received, with a
letter from the author, dated Circlcville, 0., Nov. 3, 1871, and,
on motion, referred to the following Committee ; Prof George
Allen, Mr. Pliny E. Chase and General Tilghman.

A Note on tlie Eootmark in Hierogl^qDhic Script, b}^ M. F.
Chabas, of the Institute of France, was read by the Secretary.

JVote of F, Chabas, of the Iiidltuie of France, on iJie FooUmarlc in the
nieroglyplilc Script.

I fuxl in the Proceedings of the American riiilosophical Society fVol.
XL, ]). 312) the following statement :

"Mr. Lesley referred also to the fact tliat the ancient Egyptian B was
graphically represented by the leg, A by the arm, T by the hand, and
that what is called tlie comb ]nay have boon meant for the foot-mark."

I am not acquainted with any hieroglyphic character bearing in its
graphical form a nearer resemblance to a comb than [Mr, Cliabas here
gives the ^l as in the first King's name, Mena,] the larger drawings of
"Which show manifestly to be a chess or draught-board with its men.

But the feet occur in the hicroglyi^hic script, not with a phonetic but
with a symbolic worth. Tliey are a mark of the actual presence of the
delineator. When a pious Egyptian repaired to some place of worship,
in a distant country, he would sometimes, as a token of his zeal, incise a
figure of his two feet on some stone in the neighborhood. Similar sculp-
tures were observable on the terrace of the temple of Khons at Ivarnak,
and have been published by M. Prisse d'Aveuncs ; the name, pedigree and
titles of the pilgrim are generally written close to his sculptured feet,
■which arc represented either naked or shood ; in one case they are re-
placed by the soles or feet-marks.

This practice was probably very old, but cither from the scarcity of
monuments or the neglect of observers, it can not be traced up in the first
empire. One of the instances published by M. Prisse refers to the reign
of Apries.

Chalon sur Saone, Oct. 21, 1S7L

F. CHABAS.

A. r. S. — VOL. XII — Y.

__j- nr^

l!li

^ ■

194 '

Mr. Lesley explained that lie referred to the comb-like syl-
lable Za??^^vllich occnrs frequently with the signification
^' black ; to become black," and therefore, as the name of Egypt
Ka7n "black land," the IlaM of the Hebrew Scriptnres.^ Its
verbal meaning is " to advance or be advanced to completion,"
and is so used in reference to any work, building or monn.nient.
Although the figure is drawn witli a square heel, yet the slant
of its front end, and the setting upon it of five points like toes
suggests a plausible explanation of its meaning to advance,
provided it be allowed to represent the human foot, which
otherwise docs not appear in Egyptian, except in profile and
in connection with the leg. Why Bunsen should call it the
tail of a crocodile it would be difficult to explain. Diimichen's
plates of the legends on the walls of Dendereh do not give^thc
figure on a scale large enough to decide upon its original
shape, and I have never happened to see it on the monu-
ments.

Mr. Cope presented for publication in the Proceedings, with
four octavo plates, a communication on certain extinct verte-
brata in the strata of :N^orth Carolina; and illustrated a sketch
of his paper by exhibiting some of these fossil remains.

The Minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers and
Council were read.

Pending nominations Nos. 679, 680, 681, and new nomina-
tion No. 682 were read.

Mr. Eraley reported that he had duly executed the Power
of Attorney in the case of the Michaux legacy and transmitted
the same to M. Carlicr.

The request of Br. Somers, Prof. Chcm. Southern Univer-
sity at Greensboro, Ala , was referred to the Committee on
Publication, and the meeting was adjourned.

/

Nov. 17,1871.]

195

[Carey.

Ohiiuary Notice t*/ Stephen Colwell.

{Bead before the American Philosophical Sac, Nov. 17, 1871.)

By Henry C- Cauet.

A life protracted considerably beyond the allotted threescore years and
ten lias brought me, in the conrse of nature, to the x^osition of survivor
to a host of personal friends whose lives had made them worthy of the re-
membrance in wiiich they yet are held by those who had known them
best. Of one of tlie worthiest of those whom I have familiarly known,
and for their words and their works have most csteeuicd, it is that, in ac-
cordance with tlie I'equest with which the Society has honored me, I have
prepared the brief memoir that will now be read. For its preparation and
for the proper performance of duty to the departed, to his surviving
friends, and to the public which has a propeity in his memory, I claim to
have little qualilication beyond that resulting from long and familiar ac-
quaintance; from a fellowship in the public labors to which were devoted
so many of his life's best days ; and from an earnest desire to aid in per-
petuating the recollection thereof in the minds of those whose service
such labors had been performed.

An ardent pursuit of the same general course of study, in a yet unset-
tled dcx^artment of inquiry, tends necessarily to the development of dif-
ference in modes of thought, even where, as has been the case with Mr.
Colweli and myself, the end in issue is substantially tlie same. Between
us, however, there has never been any essential difference, and while it
has been among the highest gratifications of my life, it has not been least
of the assurances that have sustained me in my own course of speciality
of labor, that his views of social and economic theory have so nearly co-
incided with those which I have been led to form.

This general coincidence of doctrine is here offered as a reason for
avoiding that indulgence in eulogy of his literary labors which so justly
is their due. A still stronger reason for preferring to allow the simplest
and plainest history of his works to indicate his worth, is found in that
modesty which constituted so striking a feature in his character, respect

for which forbids that I should here say of him anytliing that w^ould have
been unacceptable if said in his bodily presence. That I can entirely re-
strain within these limits the expression of my apprehension of his char-
acter, and of his life's work, I do not say ; but that I feel the repressive
induence of this regard correspondent with the habitual deference which
has throughout many years of intercourse governed my demeanor towards
him, is very certain. Further than this, however, it will be enough for
praise if I can succeed in making this memoir an adequate report of his
active and energetic life.
Having thus explained the feelings by which I have been influenced, I

77^^ T^TN >L*V^_-.C- 1 X» ^-^

- ^

Carey.]

196

[Nov. IT,

'ii

shall now proceed to give such facts as have been attainaLlc in regard to
his unwritten liistorj^, and such indices of the works he has left behind
him, as seem to claim a prominent place, and can be made to fall within
the compass of the brief time allowed mc for their presentation.

Stephen Colwell was born in Brooke County, West Virginia, on the
25th of March, 1800. He died in Philadelphia on the 15th of January,
1871, having nearly completed his 71st year. He received his classical
education at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, AVashington County, Pa.,
where he graduated in 1819. He studied law under the direction of
Judge Ilallcck in Steubenville, Ohio ; was admitted to the bar in 1831 ;
practised the profession seven years in St. Clairsville, Ohio ; and in 1838
removed to Pittsburgh, where he continued so to do until the year 183G.

Indicative of that ability and industry whicli marked his whole subse-
quent life, and now so well accounts for the mass and quality of his at-
tainments, are the facts that he graduated at the early ago of nineteen,
and entered upon his profession at twenty-one.

The practice of the law, however, was not the sphere of mental activity
for which by tastes and talents lie had been best by nature fitted. The
study of this science Avas, nevertheless, a happy preparation for the in-
quiries in whose pursuit he afterwards became so much engrossed. Its
exacter method, doubtless, corrected the mental habitude and the narrow-
ing induence which an ardent mind is apt to catch from an exclusive de-
votion to the study of any single branch of literature or science. His
writings everywhere bear witness in logic and diction to the corrective
influence of his legal acquirements. Social science is that department of
knowledge which especially receives its verification and practical ad-
justment in jurisprudence and civil govcrment applied—the iJiilosopby
of Law being the crown and summary of sociology in all its branches.

Further, Mr. Colwell gave for a layman an unusual amount of study
to the department of religious literature, and here also we find the guiding
influence of his socioiogic as well as of his legal training. A devoted re-
ligionist from earliest youth to the close of life, he gave himself to an
ardent study of doctrine and of duty, meanwhile laboring as zealously and
almost as constantly as if he had Oiled the office of pastor in the Church,
in the propagation of such opinions as demanded conformity of life from
professors of religion. His publications bear witness of his faithfulness,
as his life in its every relation illustrated the morality and the charity

wb.ich his faith enjoined.

It is not for us to sit in judgment upon religious doctrines, Avhcther to
applaud or to condemn them. His well known zcnl, and his abundant
labors in piety and charity, are here adduced for the simple reason that
the portraiture of the man would be incomplete and mostunworthy of its
subject without distinct recognition of a feature so predominant in his

character.

Were I here to venture an opinion, fully warranted perhaps by the
subject, T should be disposed to say that the study of the theologian must

I

>

^
^

n
^

■jn-^^TQuT— i.h"-Tit^>^' Z

iz.-r^jrj^^^ SICTTT" C^

1871.]

197

[Carey.

\

be greatly influenced for safer direction and better uses when held ni
logical harmony with, and restrained of its speculative tendencies by, those
rules of thought which must govern men in the actual duties and rela-
tions of life. To my mind it is clearly obvious that the religious writings
of Mr. Colwell exhibit a liealthy tone and a useful drift reflected from his
economic studies ; and iu these latter a faithfulness of service and a dedi-
cation of spirit and endeavor, which happily illustrate the moral respons-
ibility resulting from the sentiments of the former. To this I may per-
haps be allowed to add, that if each and every man occupying an influen-
tial position could be induced with equal fidelity and ability " to show
his fidelity by his works," the prevailing indiiference to the claims of
Cfiristianity would speedily give place to a widely different spirit induced
by the attractiveness of its illustration. Here, however, I am engaged
mainly with the prominent traits of Mr. Colwell's own character and the
influences that formed his life and gave direction to it. His education
and etfcctivc development were not found alone iu the studies by winch
he was so largely and so usefully occupied. Whatever of principle and
policy resulted from the application of the student was induced and en-
riched and energized in another and even more exact training school than
any that the speculations of science can afford. In the thirty- sixth year
of his age, fresh and full of all that reading and refiection could supply,
he entered upon the conduct of business affairs in an occupation that as
much as any other, and probably even more, brought into service and
severely tested both economic facts and principles. He became a manu-
facturer of iron flrst at "Weymouth, Atlantic County, Kew Jersey, and
afterwards at Conshohockcn, on the Schuylkill. Throughout a quarter
of a century of vicissitudes, inflicted upon that department of manufac-
ture more mischievously than upon almost any other by an inconstant
and often unfriendly governmental policy, opportunity was presented, as
the necessity was imposed, for studying the interests of productive indus-
try in the light of such actual and greatly varied experiences as might
instruct even the dullest, and could not fail to teach one already so well
qualified for promptly understanding afl that actually concerned that and
every other branch of industrial production. Before entering upon the
arduoxis and trying experiences of this pursuit he had visited Europe,
and there had studied the art and management of its advanced and varied

industries.

The settlement of the large estate of his father-indaw, the late Samuel
Richards, and the adtninistratiou of those of several other members of
his family, required and received as much attention during many years
as would have constituted the entire business of many men, who would
have thought themselves fully occupied. In addition to private aflairs,
so considerable and so exacting, he was constantly engaged as a leading
and working member of various public associations; industrial, benevolent
and educational. The character, the extent and the variety of these
engagements, to wliieh ho was invariably attentive and punctual, may ho

n

^ r'

--JZ rU- JE^+^l-K-H-

Carey. ]

198

[Nov. 17,

III

4 I

inferred from a simple enumeration by their titles, as foUows: he was a
worlving member of the American Iron and Steel Association, from its
origin to the close of his life; an active member of the African Coloniza-
tion Society for more than a score of years ; several years engaged in the
management of our House of Kcfuge ; nearly twenty years a Director of
the Camden and Atlantic l^ailroad, whose Board of Directors, in a feeling
notice of his death, say that, "having been an active member of the Board
from its organization, and having contributed very largely of his means,
time and labor in the prosecution and completion of this work ; in many
dark periods of this enterprise we could always look to Mr. Colwell for
his matured judgment and able counsel."

He was a Director in the Reading and in the Pennsylvania Central
Railroads, and for years held the office of a Trustee of the University of
Pennsylvania ; as also a similar position in the Princeton Theological
Seminai-y. Simultaneously therewith, he was one of the Trustees of the
Presbyterian General Assembly, and member of the Board of Education
of the Presbyterian Church. After the close of the Piebellion he gave
large pecuniary assistance, and his usual energy of service, to the Freed-
man's Aid Society, as during the Rebellion he had contributed with like
liberality to the work of both the Sanitary and Christian Commissions.
Of hisservices in these great patriotic charities a gentleman well acquainted
with their history says : "At the breaking out of the Rebellion he felt
deex)ly for the distress in the camps and on the battle-iield, and it was at
his suggestion that the first man who left his home to assist the helpless
and the wounded, took his way to the seat of war. He also contributed
freely to supply comforts to those in the hospitals. To one of the active
stewards he said, ' Let nothing be wanting, and if the Government funds
are insufficient I will see that the bills are paid.' " The same witness of
his active benevolence to the suffering soldiers, and of his personal de-
meanor in ifcs administration, further says: "Those who accompanied
him on his visits to the Army of the Potomac, can never forget the kind-
ness and respect with which he treated the humblest individuals."

In the patriotic services and sacrifices to which the country called its
best citizens in the hour of its utmost need, he was in every form of duty,
one of the earliest most constant, persistent and efficient of the men in
private life who gave themselves unreservedly to the salvation of the
Union. The Union League of tliis city in words which well might serve
as a condensed memoir of his life and character, bears this testimony
to his agency in the great work of their association : " With an intelli-
gent and thoughtful mind, fully convinced of the necessity and usefulness
of such an organization, and a heart warmly alive to the encouraging in-
fluences, it was peculiarly htting that at the first formal meeting which
led to the establishment of the Union League shordd be called upon, as
he was, to preside. His name thus heads the list of signers of the con-
stitution of the League ; and he grew with its growth, ever in the fore-
front of whatever movement was planned for giving aid and comfort and

1871,1

199

[Carey

support to his country and its government throughout the course of its
struggle for existence, in resisting, by force of arms, a causeless and
wicked armed Rebellion." Of his personal character and demeanor, they
say : ' 'We desire to bear testimony to those virtues which manifested them-
selves in all its intercourse with us ; to the singleness and unselfishness
of his purpose ; to his courteousness and urbanity in our varied relations;
to his firmness, cautiousness and wisdom in the deliberations of our coun-
cils ; to his patience, unwearying industry and cheerful devotion of time,
abihties and means in aid of the cause so dear to all our hearts ; to his
cojistant unwavering joy, and faith, and trust in the overruling Provi-
dence of the God of our fathers amid the darkest hours of the country's
peril, as well as in times of success and victory."

Such engagements as these, and numerous others kindred in t]icir
character and calhngfor similar labors, filled the nnddleand later periods
of his hfe with occupation : his associates, and all with whom business
intercourse and public enterprises connected him, testifying to tlie prompt,
energetic, patient and worthy i^erformance of every duty thus n^sumcd
or imposed. Kcarly half a century employed in public and private affairs
making large demands for labor and care, and involving great responsi-
bility, gave him that sound practical experience wdiich well and effect-
ively w^oven hito the studies of his life made him what he eminently be-
came, a clear, safe, and thoroughly instructive economist. Concurrently
with this practical training he was, in the best sense and fuilcst meaning
of the word, a student. As early as his business life began, if not even
earlier, he commenced the collection of a library of social science, politi-
cal economy, finance, pauperism, organized charities, productive indus-
tries, and associate and cognate departments of science, notv the largest
and best to be found in the country. This grand collection has not been
catalogued, or even classified, but it considerably exceeds five thousand
volumes, and is estimated for the purpose of insurance at a value of
twenty thousand dollars. To tins library and to the books, pamphlets,
periodical and newspaper articles of his own production, he devoted all
his leisure. In several lists of cited authorities appended to his own pub-
lications and criticisms upon them, he furnishes evidence that he was, in
the language of one of his familiar acquaintances, ''one of the greediest
of readers."

To the commonly accei>ted authorities on Political Economy, Finance,
and Policy of Public Afiairs, he, however, gave no more than that amount
of faith and acceptance which they should command from a mind well
stored with the facts and philosophy of their subjects. To a friend who
expressed surprise at ids vast collection of books and pamphlets on the
single subject of Money, he replied when asked if he had perused them
all, " enough to know that there is really little or nothing in them of any
value. ' '

His librar^^, besides its completeness in standard works, derives a special
value from its collection of over twenty-five hundred pamphlets on topics

Carey. J

200

[Xov. 17,

usually embraced in what is called Political EcoTiomy ; each separately
bound and ciipable of classihcd arrangement. lie re<^arded, and justly
too, such smaller treatises as especially valuable for containing the best
thoughts of the writers in the most condensed form, and likely thus to
secure not only the greatest number but the most attentive readers. For
the most part he put his own publications on social and economic sub-
jects into this unpretending form.

Q.

His judgment was too clear and too well poised to suffer the imposture
of pretentious authorship. Knowing that book-makers are not always
thinkers he gave his regards to those writers only who had something of
their own to say, or knew how to give efTective array to the valuable
words of others. It would have been an excellent service to students,
now abandoned to their own luiformed judgment in the selection of
works in this department, and thus condemned to promiscuous reading,
if Mr. Colwell had in some effective way employed his eminent discern-
ment in giving us an index expitr gator his of the books and treatises ui^on
econoraic subjects which crowd our libraries, thus driving astake through
the worthless and the false among them, numerous as the latter are. In
his Essay Preliminary to List's Political Economy, ho has, indeed, sliown
his eminent capacity for estimating aright the economic authorities of
their true value, confining himself, however, almost entirely to an ana-
lysis and commendation of those works which are worthy of reliance. It
was more consonant with his taste and tendencies to select the good, than
to annoy himself with the study and exposure of that which was calcu-
lated to be injurious. Often have I wondered at the patience, even luore
than at the diligence, great as it was, with which he conscientiously sur-
rendered so large a portion of liis months and years to library labors. His
toil, however, was made for excellent uses, and the fruity of his literary
industry exhibit themselves not only in tlie number but also in the value
of his publications. Of that value but little can be traced to the thous-
ands of volumes which liad passed through his hands. Indeed, it is
curiously significant that the best read man in economic literature stands
now before us so little indebted to the books of his predecessors for the
most valuable portions of his own productions. Never writing Aviihout
having s.)racthing worthy to be rearl, all that he did write was, as largely
as can be affirmed of any other prolific author, in matter and manner his
own. There was in him, however, nothing of arrogance, nothing of the
scorner. In the whole course of his literary pursuits may be discovered
a constant effort to promote and propagate important scientiiic truths
bearing upoji social welfare, under cover of such books as seemed to him
to deserve extensive circulation. To the translation, annotation, and
effective distribution of these he freely and devotedly gave his time, his
labor, and his means. Among the leading instances of this kind, is the
translation, by Mr. Matile, of List's jSTational System of Political Econo-
my, with his own invaluable Preliminary Essay, above referred to, and
with copious marginal notes upon the text, from liis own pen. In like

1871. J

201

[Oiirey,

manner he procured the Irauslatiou (again by Mr. Matile) auJ the publi-
cation for liberal distribution, of Chastel's "Charity of tlie Primitive
Churches;" and also the repubUcation of "The Race for Riches," by
William Arnot, of Glasgow, with a corroborative preface and notes, by

himself supplied.

This would be the place for giving special attention to that long and
varied catalogue of his own contributions to the literature of political
economy, finance, charity, and Christian ethics, in the form of pamphlets
and essays, and other articles in the reviews, periodicals and newspapers.
With that detail, however, I will not here task myself nor use the passing
Lour of your time, preferring to append hereto a list of his works as fall
and complete as I have been able to make it. Mr. Colwell, as his family
inform me, neither collected nor registered these productions, as a couse-
qucnce of which my summary of them by their titles is necessarily in-
complete, although not otherwise incorrect.

His labors of mind and pen, his endeavors, services, and subsidies in
aid of the establishment and extension of collegiate education ; hxa per-
sonal pressure upon all wlio were in the way of forwarding the great en-
terprise ; his donations and legacies, all had this one grand leading aim—
the propagation of sound doctrine in social duty, and its enforcement in
the education not only of our scholars, but also of the reading people of
our great community. To that object he dedicated his library in giving
it to the University of Pennsylvania. Anxious to make the gift more
effective, he coupled the grant, in his deed of trust, with a condition that
required the endowment of a chair of social science ; but his family,
knowing his intention that the donation should in no event prove a fail-
ure, has waived the present performance of the condition, in the well
warranted expectation that in good time it will be carried out.

With the like intent he labored long for the cstablislnnent of a profes-
sorship in the Theological Seminary of Princeton, an idea that, with the
assistance of others in great measure brought to contribute by his own
perseverance and his liberal advances, has now been carried into full effect ,
" His works do follow him "—the inauguration, on the 27th of September"
last, of a professorship of "Christian Ethics and Apologetics," in its
promise fullilling one of the dearest wishes of his heart.

What Mr. Colwell iutended by the establishment of a chair of Christian
Ethics, in Princeton, and what he regarded as the chief object of a chair
of Social Science in the Tniversity of Pennsylvania, can scarcely be mis-
understood if his own writings be studied for their ruling sentiment and
leading purpose. Cultivating political economy as a theory of benefi-
cence, he wrote his most elaborate and voluminous work upon the credit
system, embracing therein all the agencies and instruments employed in
foreign trade and domestic commerce, and gave a vast amount of time and
thought to the literature of these several subjects in all their branches ;
but through all and over all the crowning aim and purpose of his en-
deavors stands out conspicuously, crystaUized as it is in a definition of
political economy in which, after reviewing the entire range of conflicting

A. p. S.— VOL. XII— z.

Carey. ]

202

[Nov. 17,

))

??

explications, lie says: *' When we meet a definition running thus— the
science of human toelfare, in its relations with the in'odnction and distvi-
bution of wealth, we shall begin to hope the doctrine of social, or politi-
cal, or national economy, is beginning to assume its proper proportions.
The sentiment of that defmition directed all his studies, all his writings,
and, as a passion, governed all his life. In religion, the faith that foorks
by love ; in economic theory, the best interests of humanity ; in morals,
the justice, mercy, and charity which practically exemplify the brother-
hood of men ; w^erc the governing impulses of all the works of both his
head and his hands.

In his " New Themes for the Trotcstant Clergy" we fuKl such senti-
ments as these: " Creeds, but not without charity; Theology, but not
without humanity ; Protestantism, but not without Christianity.
Again : ''It is not enough for the Christian to be concerned only for the
interests of men in the world to come, but for their best interests in this
world." With some severity of rebuke, but far more earnestness of af-
fection, he says: "Wo maintain that Christ himself should have the
chief voice in defining Christianity, and that this has been denied him in
most, if not all, the compends and summaries of Christian doctrine which
arc the bo3id of Protestant churches;" following this up by urging the
fact that "the world now believes that the religion announced by the
Author and Finisher of our faith embraces humanity as well as divinity
in its range."

This remonstrance, and its implied censure, will bo understood when
we perceive that he went further, far further, in his apprehension of true
Christian charity, than almsgiving extended to pressing cases of distress.
The modern usage of devolving the relief of the poor upon the poorhouse
system established by the civil law, he calls "the stigma of Protestant-

and he demands irom the professors of Christianity an earnest en-

ism

deavor to give the poor permanent emancipation from the evils which
they endure. He presses the charge against the Established Church of
England, that it holds resources donated to its Catholic predecessors for
relief of the poor, which now yield 5,50,000,000 per annum, while throw-
ing the support of the suffering upon the charity of the btatc ; at the
same time quietly sustaining that system of industrial and commercial
policy which takes from the labor of the realm two hundred and fifty
millions of dollars for the use of the government, and live times more for
the profit of capital. Nay further this gentlest of gentlemen, this most
orthodox of churchmen, this most devout of worshipers, in the convic-
tion that the failure of Christians to exemplify Christianity in their deal-
intj-s with the world is the grand cause of the aversion and rejection it en-
counters, is led therein to fmd some justification for the socialism and the
insurrectionary demonstrations now so rapidly and threateningly spread-
ing throughout Europe and America, and exhibiting such a spirit of re-
volt among the masses of Christendom as is nowhere found in the pagan

world.

i

1871.]

203

[Carey.

ii

In tlic battle-cry of tlic reformers now advancing upon the conservatism
of our civilization, be hears the proclamation of "the fatherhood of God
and the brotherhood of man" — a protest against "that notion of indi-
vidual liberty which leaves every man to care for himself, and ruin to
seize the hindmost."

To the almost universally prevalent doctrines of political economy he
traces the apathy, indiiierence, and even hostility of the fortunate classes
to the duties enjoined in the second table of tiie law, as it is summarized
by the Great Teaclier. Singling out the most distinguished and most
popular of now existing disciples and advocates of the lais&ez-faire school
of economistSj he thus exhibits Herbert Spencer's "Social Statics" :

Tbe man of power and the man without ; the man of wealth and the
pauper, should each have the largest and most perfect liberty consistent
with their not toucliing each other. * * * It forbids the thought of
charity, or brotherhood, or sacrihce ; it consecrates selfishness and indi-
vidualism as the prime feature of society. ^' - ^ Its principle is the
least possible restriction, the fewest possible enactments ; the weak must
be left to their weakness, the strong must be trusted with their strength,
the unprotected man must not look for favor, and government must re-
solve itself into the lowest possible agent of nonintervention."

Than the view thus presented of the now-so-niuch lauded Spencerian
social philoso]>hy nothing could be more tlioroughly accurate. The whole
tendency of that modern economical school, to whose teachings our de-
parted friend was so nuich opposed, has been, nnd is, in the direction of
giving increased power to the rich and strong, while throwing responsi-
bility on the shoulders of the poor and weak. *'If the latter will marry,
and ic ill \vM' G children, why," say they, "should they not be allowed to
pay the penalty of their crime, as so many millions of starving Irish have
already done?" " Why," though in some what diilerent words, now asks
Mr. Spencer, " Why should not tlu", poor remain in ignorance if unable to
provide for educating their children and themselves?" ""Why should
the millionaire be required to aid in maintaining hospitals in which dam-

i

age to poor laborers' limbs may promptlj^ and properly be repaired?" "Is
it not for every man to do as he will with that which is his own ?" The
new philosophy having answered this latter cpiestion in the affirmative,
need we be surprised that the miserable selfishness thus given to the world
as science should have excited the indignation of one who knew, and felt
that it must be a nicre pretence of science that could sanction any course
of conduct so wholly inconsistent with the divine command, " that we do
to others as," un^er similar circumstances, "we would that they should
do to ourselves?" Assuredly not !

It would be difficult for me fully and completely to express the strength
of the humanitarian sympathies exhibited in Mr. Colweil's plea for jus-
tice to the victims of our reckless competition and our voracity in the
pursuit of material wealth. To prevent misconstruction of his severe
animadversions upon the existing agency of church and state in the pre-
vailhig disorders of society, and to show the bearing of his complaint I

Carey. ]

204

[Nov. IT,

cite another passage from the '^ New Themes," as follows : ^' The doc-
trine that property, real and personal, must under all circumstances re-
main inviolate, always under the cver-watchfiil vigilance of the law, and
its invaders subject to the severest penalties of dungeon and damages,
may be very essential to the maintenance of our present social system,
but it totally disregards the consideration that Labor, the poor man's
capital, his only property, should, as his only means of securing a com-
fortable subsistence, be also under the special care and safeguard of the
law. The doctrine that trade should be entirely free— that is, that mer-
chants should be perfectly at liberty, throughout the world, to manage
their business in that way which best promotes iJieiT interests^may suit
very well for merchants, making tliem masters of the industry of the world;
but it will be giving a small body of men a power over the bones and
sinews of their fellow-men, which it would be contrary to all our knowl-
edge of human nature if they do not latally abuse, because they are in-
terested to reduce the avails of labor to the lowest attainable point, as the
best means of enlarging their business and increasing their gains. That
philosophy," he continues, "which teaches that men should always be
left to the care of themselves— that labor is a merely marketable commo-
dity which should be left, like others, to find its own market value with-
out reference to the welfare of the man, may appear plausible to those
who forget the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of men, but is ut-
terly at variance with the precepts of ITim who taught that those who
stood idle in the market-place because no man had hired tliem, and were
sent to work at the eleventh hour, should receive the same as those who
had borne the burden and heat of the day."

It is not my business here and now either to commend or to iTupeacb,
but simply to Hto;te the attitude assumed by Mr. Colwell in reference to
questions so much exposed to debate as these, and by him so sharply and
earnestly treated. The great sensation produced in our religious world
by their publication has given way to much more moderate feelings, and
evidently enough to a beti;er appreciation of their spirit and design. One
of the representative papers of the church of which he was a life-long
member, thus speaks of the controversy which his publications had aroused
ten years since : "In one or two of his own books on this engrossing and
all-important theme [Christian charity], he used language in regard to the
apathy and criminality of modern professors of faith in Christ and his
salvation, which was so severe as to arouse bitter hostility to his faithful
and well-meant efforts. Would that now, when the mutual wounds have
ceased to smart, in the case of most of those engaged in them, alas ! by a
departure from all the conflicts of the church militant, earnest men coald
be roused to examine their lessons and suggestions, forgetful of the occa-
sional sharpness of the form in which they were conveyed." The most
aggrieved having thus now come to acknowledge that "faithful are the
wounds of a friend," they may also recollect that only once, and that in a
strikingly pertinent instance, the founder of their faith is reported to have

i
t

t

^y
r

^i

1871. ]

205

[Carey.

r

>-

given way to iiKlignation against a piety that Rnbordinatecl bumanity to
theology. '' When the rnlci-s of the synagognc watched liim wliether ho
■would heal the withered hand, in their church, on their Sahhath-day, he
looked round about on them with aiujer, being grieved for the hardness,
or, as the margin has it, the blindness, of their hearts." (Mark iii. 2-5).
That it was this sort of mdignation, mixed with the same kind of grief,
which induced the severity of remonstrance complained of at the time, is
manifest in the whole tone, and yet more so in the special drift of his ob-
jurgations. The true construction of his aim, indeed, is found in his pro-
test against the ruling doctrines of political and social economy which the
churches, in common with the community, accept. A single sentence
well represents him on this subject, as follows : " The social, political, and
commercial institutions of the present day, founded .upon, and sustained
by. a selfislmess heretofore unequalal, are the great barriers to the pro-
gress of Christianity." And again: ''Political economy, strictly so
called, is as much opposed to the spirit of Christianity asitis antagonistic
to socialism ; or, m other words, there is far more in common between
socialism and Christianity than there is between the latter and political
economy." The system of economic theory by himself adopted, is of
course not the one intended here, but is that one which, referring to the
^^orth British Review, is thus described : "Followed out to the utmost,
the spirit of political economy leads to the fatal conclusion— that the con-
duct of the social life should be left entirely to the spontaneous operation
of laws which have their seat of action in the minds of individuals, with-
out any attempt on the part of society, as such, to exert a controlling in-
fluence ; in other words, without allowing the State or institutions for
general government any higher function than that of protecting individual

freedom."

It is, therefere, the laissez-faire theory of political economy which thus
is charged with hostility at once to Christianity and humanity. The
buy-chc°^p-and-sclhdear system elsewhere described by him as a policy
" in trade and in society, which makes it not only the interest, hut the
natural course of every one to prey upon his fellow-men to the full extent
of his power and cunning, and is well fitted to carry selfishness to its
highest limits, and to extuiguish every spark of mutual kindness." His
political economy was a system of philosophic benevoleiice, a doctrine of
justice, mercy, and truth, with a resulting economic policy of protection
to productive industry, leading to the highest human welfare. In the
appendix and notes to his second edition of the " ^^ew Themes," he has
given us a whole hbrary of the literature of Charity. In the hundreds or
treatises there cited and brielly ci)itomized, he exhibits a breadth of sur-
vey and depth of inquiry that one would think must exhaust the subject.
It was the result of many years of labor, directed by a zeal that nothing
could inspire and sustain but a heartfelt devotion to the work of social
duty and remedial beneficence. May I not here add, as a reflection that
concerns the students of social science, that the system of economic doc-
trines which secured the assent ofa mind so fully informed, so eminently

Carey. ]

206

[Nov. 17,

endowed, and so long and zealously devoted to a search after trntli, is
entitled to all the contidence that authority can give, and justly claims
most studious attention.

Having rendered his best persona! services to the subject which he luul
so much at heart, he further evidenced his earnestness and solicitude for
its still more formal and more adequate treatment by offering a prize of
$500 for a treatise upon the law or doctnne of Christian charity, accom-
panying the offer with a general outline directory of the plan of the re-
quired work, indicating its essential points ; among which are to be noted
the organization of labor ; international tiude in its effects upon the re-
wards of domestic labor ; the subject of public education ; the laM^ of
charity as applying to the poor, the suffering, the imprisoned, the vicious,
the insane, the intemperate, the dangerous, S:g., &c.

I am not aware that any work of real merit was secured by the liberal
reward offered. No such book having been published, it is presumable
that no response was made.

There remains yet to be considered, in such manner as my Hmits allow,
anotlier and a highly important division of the service rendered to the
public by Mr. Colwell, in an official position to which his high reputa-
tion called him in the G5th year of his age. In June, 1SG5, he was ap-
pointed upon the Commission, authorized by Act of Congress, " to in-
quire and report upon the subject of raising by taxation such revenue as
may be necessary in order to supply the wants of the government, having
regard to, and including the sources from which such revenue should be
drawn, and the best and most efficient mode of raising the same." In
the service imposed by this appointment he continuedtill the midsummer
of 18GG, when the work assigned was finished and fully reported. The
labor thus undertaken and performed interrupted and even ended the ac-
tive literary pursuits and practical work of his life. His family, whose
tenderly affectionate watchfulness makes them tlie best and most compe-
tent witnesses, attribute to his exacting and exhausting toil in the duties
ofthis position that failure of his health which soon afterwards obliged
him to relinquish, in great measure, his life-long pursuits both as student
and as writer.

In the Hcport of the Tievenue Commission, communicated to Congress
in January, 18GG, and published in a large octavo volume by authority of
the House of lieprescntatives, may be found the special repoi-ts of Mr.
Colwell on ^'The Induenee of Duplication of Taxes upon Au:,erican In-
dustry—upon the Relations of Foreign Trade to Domestic Industry and
Internal Kevcnue— upon Iron and Steel— and on Wool and Woolens.''
Two other reports of his, one upon High Prices and their Relations with-
Currency and Taxation, and another, upon Over-importation and Relief,
are not included in this volume. How he executed the work which fell
to his share of the duties of the Commission, it is enougJi to say that he
did it to assure us of finding tlierein the fullest discussion of those vastly
comprehensive subjects, based upon the most ample store of statistical
facts, and arrayed with that force wliich the soundest theoretical princi-

\

1871.]

207

[Carey.

pies, and the largest practical acquaintance \vitU the details which enter
into the several subjects of inquiry, alone could give.

The "work done by him, outside of that which his own pen has reported,
was of itself, and independently, w^ortby of permanent record. The
Secretary of the Wool Manufacturers' Association, ]\Ir J. L. Hayes, an
eminently capable witness, thus speaks of his agency and inlluence in
harmonii^ing the conflicting interests of the agriculturists and manufac-
turers of this staple industry of the nation : " The conferences between
the two committees (representing the respective parties) commenced in
January, 18G5, and w^cre continued without much pause for six months. At
the outset the two committees were widely apart in their views, and the
traditional jealousies became at once apparent. Here tlie weight of char-
acter disinterestedness, and moral power of Mr. Col well came into play.
He was personally present at many of these conferences, and I am con-
vinced that tlie iiarmonious arrangement finally made was mainly due to
his influence. This influence was perfectly unobtrusive, but both parties
had absolute reliance upon Mr. Colwell's integrity and wisdom, and a
mere hint from him was sufficient to give a right direction to our coun-
cils. Some of the suggestions which he made were of great practical
value." Of one of these this gentleman says : " It has been in operatiou
five years, and it is a constant surprise to manufacturers and growers
that so brief an act, affecting so many really distinct branches of indus-
try, should cover so much and operate so wisely." Again he says : '* The
bill, of which the chief features are due to Mr. Colwell's suggestiop.s, is
wonderfully sustained ; its practical w^orking is really remarkable for its
success, '^ '""■ " but the influence upon our own industry is by no means
the chief object. The wool tariff is the key to the protective position in
this country. It secures the agricultural interest and the AA^est."

His treatment of this subject, and the reports upon trade, production,
prices and national finance, place him, in my judgment, highest among
the authorities in our history in whatever combines knowledge of facts
and soundness of economic pi-inciples. Quite sure am I that there is not
so much of practical value and guiding principle to be learned even in
that great storehouse of economic literature which he has given to the
University. The earnest and intelligent student of the industrial and
commercial policy of our country who may give to these reports the at-
tention that is their due, will find himself prepared for a safe, clear and
satisfactory judgment upon all of the many questions therein embraced.

Incidentally, but necessarily, intermixed with the history and statistics
of our national industries, an unusually effective examination of the
theories of free trade and protection finds a deservedly prominent i:)]ace in
these reports ; and the predominant claims of labor upon the care of gov-
ernment and the regard of the community is the pervading spirit and
ruling impulse of all that he here has written. His heart was in this mat-
ter, and his philosophy most hai:)pily corroborated his philanthropy. The
key to all his economic doctrines is in such simple self-proving proposi-
tions as these : "The highest condition of national welfare depends upon

Carey.]

208

[Nov. 17,

the liiglicsi condition of the masses of the people in point of moi-als,
religion, intelligence, social ease, and comfort." ''The industry of a
nation is an interest so vital as to be equaled only by its internal liber-
ties and its independence of foreign control. As the tendency of full em-
ployment is to exclude crime, the benefits of that high integrity which is
the best cement of society, may be expected to reward a nation in which
occupation is the most varied and labor best remunerated."

Last to be noticed, although not latest in its presentation to the world,
is Mr. Colwell's highly vnluable work on money and its substitutes, credit
and its institutions, entitled, '' Ways and Means of Payment : a fall ana-
lysis of the credit system, with its various modes of adjustment.'" Its essen-
tial object is that of laying the axe to the root of that pestilent heresy
which teaches that prices are wholly dependent on the supply of money ;
and tliat, to use the words of Hume, the only effect of an increase in the
abundance of the precious metals is that of " obliging every one to pay a
greater number of those little white or yellow pieces than they had been
accustomed to do." The whole question of prices is here discussed witii
a care characteristic of its author ; and his readers, however they may
chance to differ from him in regard to details, can scarcely fail to agree
with him in the belief he has here expressed, that "among the innumera-
ble influences which go to determine :the general range of prices, the
quantity of money or currency is found to be one of the least cirective."
Truth, however, as is well known, travels but very slowly through the
world, centuries having elapsed since demonstration of the fact that the
earth revolved around the sun, and four-fifths of the human race yet re-
maining convinced that the sun it is that moves, and not the earth. So
has it been, and so is it like to be, in the i>resciit case, the most eminent
European economists still continuing to teach precisely what had been
taught by Hume, and statesmen abroad and at home still constructing
banking and currency laws under the belief that in the " quantity of
money or currency " had been found one of the nwHi effective causes of
changes of price. Mr. Colwell's work was published in 1851), since which
date so much light has been thrown on the subject as to make it serious
cause for regret tliat his other engagements, and his failing health, should
have prevented a re-examination of the case by aid of recent facts, all of
which have tended to prove conclusively tlie accuracy of tlie views pre-
sented in the ver^ instructive volume to which reference has now been

made.

A word more and I shall have done. Of all the men with whom I have
at any time been associated there has been none in whom the high-minded
gentleman, the enlightened economist, the active and earnest friend to
those who stood in need of friendship, and the sincere Christian, have
been more happily blended than in the one whose loss we all so much re-
irret, and of whose life and works I hcic have made so brief, and, as I
fear, so inadequate a presentation.

k

1871. ]

209

[Carey,

List of the Published Writiiigs of Stephen OokoeU.

1. Letter to the Pennsylvania Legislature on the removal of the Deposits

from the United States Bank. 8vo. pp. 45. 1834.

2. The Poor and Poor Laws of Great Britain. Prince. Rev. Jan. 1841.

3. Review of McCulloch's British Empire. Prince. Rev. Jan. 1841.

4. The Smithsonian Bequest. Princeton Review, 1849.

5. Sweden, its Poor Laws and their bearing:; on Society. P. R. 1843.

6. In and Out of the County Prison. Ko date.
The Relative Position in our Industry of Foreign Commerce, Domes-
tic Production, and Internal Trade. 8vo. pp. 50. 1850,

8. Memorial to Congress in relation to Tariff on Iron. 8vo. pp. 16. 1850.

9. New Themes for the Protestant Clergy, with Kotes on tlie Literature

of Charity. 12mo. pp. 384. 1851.

10. New Themes for the Protestant Clergy, with Notes on the Literature

of Charity. Second Edition. 12mo. pp. 384.

11. Politics for American Christians. 8vo. 1853.

7.

18.33

13. Money of Account. Merchants' Magazine.

pp. 25.

April, 1853.

13. Hints to a Layman. 13nio. 1853.

14. Position of Christianity in the United States, in its relations with Our

Political System, and Religious Instruction in Public Schools.

Svo. pp. 175. No date.

15. Preface and Notes to The Race for Riches 13mo. pp. 54. 1853.

16. The South : Effects of Disunion on Slavery. Svo. pp. 46. 1856.

17. Preliminary Essay and Notes to The National Political Economy of

Frederick List. Svo. pp. 07. 185G.

18. Money of xVcconut. Bankers' Magazine, pp. 35. July, Aug. 1857.

19. The Ways and Means of Payment. Svo. pp. 614. ISC)',).

30. IMoney, the Credit System, and Payments. Merchants' Mag. 18G0.

31. The Five Cotton States and New York. 8vo. pp. 64. 1801.

32. Southern Wealth and Northern Prufits. Svo. pp. 3L 1861.

23. The Claims of Labor, and their precedence to the Claims of Free

Trade. Svo. pp. 53. 1861.

24. Gold, Banks, and Taxation. Svo. pp. 68. 1864.

25. State and National System of Banks, the Expansion of the Currency,

the Advance of Gold, and the Defects of the Internal Revenue
Bill of June, 1864. Svo. pp. — . 1864. [1866.

Upon High Prices and their relations with Currency and Taxation.
■ Influence of the duplication of Taxes on American Industry. 1866.
28/-^ Relations of Foreign Trade to Domestic Industry and Internal Reve-
nue. 1866.
39. Over-importation and Relief. 1866.
30."''- Iron and Steel, 1800.
31.* Wool and Manufactures of Wool. 1866.

33. Financial Suggestions and Remarks. Svo. pp. 19. 1867.

Reports made from the Revenue Comml-^-^ion ;~Ti!Ose marked with an asterisk pub-
lished in the Keports of the Committee.

20.

27.

A. P. S. — VOL. XII — 2a.

Copo.]

210

[Nov. 17,

/

Oburvaiioiu on the distribution of certain Extinct Vertehrata in North

Carolina.

By Edwaud D. Cope.

(Read before tlie American riiilosopMcal Society, Nommher 17, 1871).

BlODON L.

DiOBON A^^TiQuus, Loidy. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Superior and inferior jaws from the Miocene. This fish was described
from transported and much worn specimens from the Ashley River, South
Carohna. The present specimens are imworn, and display the characters
of the species. These arc very much like those of the recent J), filcmnen-
tosus. Tlie species appears also to pertain to the horizon of the Miocene.

Belobok, Myr.

Teeth of both the smooth and ihited types were found by Prof. Kerr in
Chatham Co., X. C. The latter (/?. caroline7isis, Emm.) appear also to
occur in Wheatley's collection, from the Trias of Pho^nixviile, Penn.
Tluee successive forms of the maxillary teeth o£ B. priscus are fif^ured.

Ttiecaohamt'ra, Cope.

TiiECAcnAMi'SA KUGOSA, Emmous.

Tolyptycliodon rugosuti, Emmons, Geol. Surv. N. C.

Emmons' figure of this species is not distinguishable from a worn ca-
nine of a Basilosaurtis, and as such I regarded it on a former occasion.
An examination of a specimen received from Prof. Kerr, shows that its
affinities are Crocodilian, and its structure similar to that of Thecachainp-
sa, Cope. It is more strongly rugosc-striate tlian in any of the known
species, but is approached in rugosity by Thecacluirnpsa sipuankensis,
Marsh. The range of the genus is thus extended to N. Carolina.

CLErsYSAuiius, Lea.

Teeth of this genus are very rare, one only having been observed by Dr.

Lea. Prof. Emmons believed that he had discovered two species in the

Trias of Nortli Carolina, C. pennKylvanicus and O. leaii. The greater

part of the remains on which these were based I have shown to be Belo-

donts, but one tooth figured by Emmons, K. C. Geol. Surv., PI. V. f. o,
may b.dong to this genus.

Prof. Kerr's collection contains two teeth which are identical with that
associated with the 0. pennsylvaniciis by Lea, one of them nearly perfect,
the other the basal portion only. They exhibit two minutely denticulated
Clotting edges, separated by one-third of the circumference. This third is
nearly flat, the remaining portion being very convex. One cutting edge
extends to the base of the crown, the other occupies only the distal two-
thirds. The section of the tooth would be round at the base were it not
for the projectiou of the cutting edge. The enamel is minutely striate,
under the glass. The base of the larger tooth measures .75 of an inch in
diameter. The figure of Emjnqns leaves something to be desired, as he

A^-^

:f^^^'

1871.]

211

[Cope.

does not represent the long cutting edge of the crown. His descripilons
of the tooth appear to refer to this genus. Kerr's specimens are conclu-
sive as to the extent of this formidable genus of carnivorous Dinosauria
to K. Carolina.

Zatomus, Cope.

This genus embraces reptiles whose teeth are described and figured by
Prof. Emnious, American Geology, Pt, VI. p- G2, fig. 34. He found them
associated with radiate osseous plates (probably dermal) which he found
on one occasion in connection with the crainum of the supposed Laby-
rinthodontj Dicti/ocepliahis eUgam, Leidy. Both the plates and teeth are
too large to be associated with the latter, and the teeth especially remind
one of the Dinosauria. l^mmons describes a tooth in the following lan-
guage :

"Itia compressed, curved, finely serrate posteriorly, which a])pears to
point to the apex, when ^q,q\\ so as to bring into view a slight wrinkle or
groove at the base of each tooth. Its enamel covers the wliole crown, or
all above the part implanted or inserted. The enamel is finely or minutely
•wrinkled, and at the posterior edge, at the junction of the plates at
each side, a faint groove remains ; and the sern\i appear like a double
row, but near the apex they entirely disappear ; the convex or anterior
edge is smooth.

The tooth appears much like the tooth of a Megalosaurits in miniature,
though it is less curved. I have found only two teeth of this kind ; the
smallest is half the size of the one figured." This size is Om. 022 in
length ; diameter at base .012.

In the section given by Emmons, one side of this tooth is a little more
convex than the others.

The affinities of this genus appear to be to Teratomurus and Lcelaps,
Prom both of these, as wxll as from MegalosauruH, it differs in the absence
of serration from the aiiterior margin, and in the groove in the i)osterior
cutting eilge dividing it into two appresscd serrate edges which disappear^
near the apex. The species may bo called Zatonut!^ ^sarcophagus. Its
size about equalled large specimens of the Southern Alligator,

Hyfsibema, Cope.

Char. ^Qw. Proportions of limbs and feet much as in Hadrosaurus.

The caudal vertebr;e elongate and depressed, in the median i)art of the

series.

The elongate depressed fonn of caudid vertebr;e, distinguishes this genus
from Hadrosaurus. The latter possesses elongate vertebrae near the
extremity of the series, but anterior to this point, they are first subqua-
drate in profile, then proximally much narrowed. The form exhibited by
the known species of this genus is more like that of Hykeosaurus Mant.

Hypsibema ckassicauda, Cope. ^

The remains on whicli this species is founded consists of the distal
extremity of the right humerus, a portion of the shaft of the left tibia, a

I'jl'i

M

!i

:

Cope.l ^1"^ [^ov. 17,

J

portion of the iibiila, the right internal metatarsus somewhat broken, and
a caudal vertebra. Tliere are other uncharacteristic fragments, and a
piece which may he a dermal bone.

Associated with them arc several coprolites of lar*;;© animals.

These species indicate an animal of about the size of the ITadrosaurus
foulkei, Leidy, and "with a similar disx>roportion in tlie lengths of the

limbs.

This is readily appreciated on comparison of the huge metatarsus with
the light humerus. Tlie medullary cavity of the tibia is large ; that of
the humerus small.

The portion of the humerus preserved is injured, and the condyles are
worn. Its relation to that of H. foulkei is readily determined, and on
comparison the following marked dilTerenees appear : The ridge connect-
ing the external condyle with the shaft posteriorly is acute ; it is rounded
in II. foulkei. External distal face is flat or slightly concave; in H,
foulkei somewhat rounded. It is at right angles to the plane of the
anterior face, and forms with it rather less than a right angle ; in II.
foulkei this region is rounded. Distally, the shaft is much llattencd in
H. crassicauda.

Afeasurements. Lines.

Antero-posterior diameter of shaft, just above condyles. ... 20.5
Width external face distally 24.

*' olecranar fossa 16.

'* condyles, (estimated). . . . -, 64.

The anterior face at over three inches above the condyles is slightly con-
cave. About 4.5 inches above the articular face of the external condyle,
the acute ridge dividing the posterior and external faces disappears, and
the surface becomes regularly rounded.

The portion of the tibia is from the shaft of that of the left side, just
below the superior antero-posterior expansion. Therefore, the inner face
IS the most extensive, and the posterior the least so. It differs from the
same part in II. foulkei, in its less angularity, especially in the more
rounded, and less defined posterior face.

The internal face narrows downwards, and while the greater diameter
of the fragment above is antero-posterior, below it is diagonal, the anterior
point being the inner.

Meas'urements . Lint s,

Antero-posterior diameter above 48.

Transverse '' " 23.5

'• *' medullary cavity 30.5

The portion of the fibula is the distal, and resembles that of Iladrosau-
rus foulkei, in being slightly expanded near the extremity, and eylindric
in the lower part of theshalt. In both genera and Ornithotarsus, Cope,
the distal extermity of the fibula is less attenuated then in Iguanodon.

1871.] ■ 213 [Cope.

Lines.

Transverse distal diameter • ^*^-^

'' five inches above '*'^'

The right hiternal metatarsus also hears considerable resemblance to II.
fonlkci. Its proximal extremity is much more convex in its inner out-
line than in that species. The inner proximal face is plane and longi-
tudinally Avrinklcd. The proximal or tarsal articular face is concave
anteriorly ; its plane is at right angles to the axis of the sliaft of the bone.
It is strongly obhque in H. foulkei, and a rib-like prominence of the outer
face crosses the latter obliquely and at right angles to the proximal
extremity. No such rib exists in the present case, because the weight
was supported by the sluift of the bone, directly and not obliquely as in
I-Iadrosnurus. Thus the Hypsibemas walked more exactly on the toes

than did the Iladrosauri.

The posterior margin is thinner, and as in H. foulkei, presents a rather
small median protuberance. The distal condyle is broken away, but the
twist of the distal portion of the shaft shows that it was directed away
from the adjoining metatarsal, posteriorly.

Measurements. I^^- Lines.

Length from antero-superior topostero-inferior, 10 10

Extremity (iiiferior articular face worn away),

Traverse diameter proximally ^

'< " medially • ^ ^"'^

Antero-posterior diameter medially ■ - ■ ^

The diameters of the shaft are somewhat larger than in the H. foulkei

given by Leidy,

The caudal vertebra is of large size and peculiar form. The centrum is
considerably wider than deep, aud considerably longer than wide. The
posterior clievron articulations are small, and each is connected with each
anterior by a strong rounded angulation. Between the latter the space is
wide and slightly concave in transverse section, least so medially. . A
marked peculiarity is seen in the strong longitudinal ridge which tlivirles
the lateral surface of the vertebra into two nearly equal faces. The
neural arch is elongate, the neural canal small: in section a short vertical
ellipse. The articular face of the zygapophyses makes an angle of about
thirty-Qvc degrees to the perpendicular. The crest of the arch rises a
half inch behind these into the very stout basis of the neural spine, the
greater part of which, with the posterior zygapophyses, is broken off.
The inclination of the base is about Orp to the vertical diameter of the
bone, Theiarticular faces are both slightly concave, as arc the lateral
faces which arc separated by the lateral ridge.

Ln. Lines.

Length of centrum 4

" basis of neural arch 3 9

Width posterior articular face 4

j^ta^r^ttS^^*^-'

v.^-^^

Copc.l

214

[Nov. IT,

II

i[

m

\

In, Lines.

Depth *' medially 3 8

" *' laterally a 3

" basis neural spine. 13

Transverse diameter neural canal bcliiud. 10

Width between latero-inferior ridges 1 0

" vertical face of zygupopliyses 11

There is a slight rugose protuberance in the position of the diapophysis.

The peculiarities of this vertebra indicate most strikingly the generic
distinctness of tin's great reptile from the Hadrosaurus. It is true it
presents some simihirity in form to the terminal caudals of tliat genus
and if it could be referred to that portion of the series, would indicate
merely another and larger species of Hadrosaurus. It differs in form from
these vertcbryo, in its depressed instead of compressed form, and its
lateral angulation. That it belongs to a more anterior position in the
tail is evident from the very large size of the basis of the neural spine,
and general greater development of the neural arch and zygapophyses,
and the trace of diapophyses, Further, it is over four times the size of
the terminal caudals of II. foulkei, while the remaining elements do not
indicate any such extraordinary dimensions. A position a little behind
the middle of the series would relate well to the other proportions.

This is another of those remarkable forms which the reptilian type
developed in past ages. Tbat it was herbivorous, and relied less on its
tail for support tlian Hadrosaurus, appears probable. Large caprolites
of the character of those of herbivorous animals accompanied the bones.
They resemble somewhat those of the hog ; one has adiameter of ;i.5 inches
one way, and 3 inches the other ; extremity broad, obtuse. The pro-
prietor of the pit told the writer that he had more than once seen large
"hoofs" "and wide toe^joints" taken out during the excavation.

This species is different from the Ornithotarsus immanis. Cope, and
belonirs to a different g-enus. The shaft of the tibia in the latter is filled
with cancellous tissue ; in the present. animal it is entirely hollow.

From tlie marl pits of James King.

IIadkosaukus, Leidy.

Hadhosaurus TKiros, Cope.

At a point about ten miles distant from the marl pit in which the
llypsibema w^as found, Prof. Kerr discovered a caudal vertebra of a
colossal reptile, whose affinities arc evidently near to the Hadrosaurus
foulkei.

This vertebra is one of the distal, as evidenced by the entire absence
of any trace of diapophysis, and its subquadrate longitudinal section, as
well as by the small size of the neural arch and spiire. At hrst sight it
would appear to occupy a position between the thirtieth and thirty-sixth
of the series; the former in II. foulkei has, however, rudiments of a
diapopbysis. Both its articular faces are distinctly biconcave. The large

'■'^■^t

1871.] * "-^1^ [Cope.

size of the clievron articular face is as in the thirtieth, and the concavity
of its lateral faces as in the twenty-sixth; in the thirty-sixth the sides
are entirely plane. The round form of the neural canal, as well as lack
of diapophysis, are points of resemblance to tlte thirty-sixth, liut it is
more than twice as long as that vertebra in the H. foulkei. In the thirtieth
the neural canal is somewhat depressed and becomes more so as we
advance towards the proximal part of the series. The small antero-pos-
terior extent of the neural arch is much as in the thirtieth in 11. foulkei,
but the basis of the neural spine, which is broken off in tliis, as well as
the odd species, is much more slight. It is so very thin and weak as to
indicate either comparatively a slight development of the spine, or a
very posterior position in the series. A weak lateral ridge marks the side
of the centrum, which is below the middle line. It holds the same position
in the thirty-sixth in H. foulkei, but is above the middle in the thirtieth
and those anterior.

MeasuTement^. In. Line-'<,

Depth centrum to summit chevron articulation. . . 5

'* from neural canal without chevron face. . . 4

Greatest width *• •* '* . . . 4 9

Length centi um 4 8

** neurapopbysis 2 6

Width between anterioi- zygopophyses 1 3

" of arch above 1 6

' * neural canal 10

Depth ** K)

" basis ]ieural spine 5

This specimen was procured from the marl pit of W. J. Thompson,
Sampson Co., N. Carolina.

A second and nmch smnllcr vertebra from the pit that furnished tlio
remains of Hypsibema erassicauda, belonged to a third individual, and
possibly to this species. Its pro2.)ortions would point to a position near
the end of the tail, and its form is less elongate and compressed tlian
those in that position in II. foulkei. Its neural arch is not coossified. The
extrenuties are slightly concave, the geneial form subquadrate.

Lines.

Length of centrum 20.5

Diameter extremity, (vertical) IS.

*' *' (transverse) . . / 21. o

middle " 15.

The first named vertebra pertained to an immense species, perhaps
double the Iladrosaurus foulkei, in weight and bulk, should the general
proportions of the two have been at all similar. In tliat case tlie length
ot the femxir would be sixty-two and a quarter inches.

It will remain for future discovery to determine whether the species is
the same as the Oinithotarsus Immanis.

rn

a^-^ff^^

Cope. ]

216

{^*ov. 17, 1871.

il

I ■■■

PLATE I. — Hypsihema crauiccmda.

1. Caudal Vertebra of iradrosaunis tripos, side. la. Articular face.

2. do. young? a. end, b. below.

3. Eschi'ichtius polyporus, side. 3a. above.
PLATE IL — Ilypdbema crassicauda.

1, Humerus, distal portioD, from below, la. From end.

2. Tibia shaft, from the side ; 2a, from end.
8. Caudal "Vertebra.

4. Coprolite fragment;.

PLATE lll.^IIadrosauruH tripos. Eschrichtnis polyporus.

1. Fibula, lower portion ; a. proximal end of fragment.

2. Outer metatarsal, inner side ; 2a. proximal end of do.

PLATE lY.—Mesoteras Jcerrianus. Clepsysaunis pGunsyUanicus. Tlie-

cacliampsa rugosa. rolydectes hiiurgidus. Belodon prisons, Diodon
antiquuH.

1. M etio Rier (iH kerrianus, i)QY\ot\c\)o\iQ^. la. Interior view; lb. end view.

2. rolydectes Iniurgidits^ crown of tooth, side; 2a. inner view.
8, Thecdclui.mpsa Tugosa^ crown oftootb, inner view.

4. Clepsyftcmrus^ tooth, inside view; 4a. posterior view; 4b. section
base; 4c. do. near extremity ; 4d. bas8 of larger sp.

5. Belodon ? priscics, anterior tooth ; 5a. posterior view of another ; 5b.
lateral view of a posterior tootli ; 5c. edge of do.

6. Diodon aniiguus, upper jaw front ; Oa. do. from below ; Gb. lower
jaw from front ; (ic. do. from above.

L

I

L

i!ij

Stated Meeting, December- 1, 1871.

Present, ten raembers.
Dk. Emkkson iu the Chair.

A letter of acknowledgment (8Q) was received from the
Society of Antiquaries, dated London, November 8.

Letters of envoy were received from the Pontifical Academy
d. N. L.. dated Pome, June 7, 1861); and from the Public
Museum, at Buenos Ayres, dated July 12, 1871.

A letter was received from Mr. II". H. Ijeech, dated Noav
'York, Nov. 18, 1871, oflering for sale the MSS. Fables of M.
Lorin, of Paris.

Donations for the Library were announced, from the P. A.
d. N. L. at Rome, tiie R. Institutes at Mdan and Venice, the
11. Observatories at Moncaliere and Turin, Signori Dorna,
Biffi, Muoni, Buceellati, Ferraris, Gabba, Mussi and Denza ;
from the Public Aluseum at Buenos Ayres; the Editors of
the Eevue Politique, Old and New, the American Chemist,
and from Yale College.

A photographic copy of the quasi coin described below,
was presented to the Cabinet by Mj". Dubois.

An Obituary notice- of Sir Jolm F. W. Ilerschel, written
by Mr. II. W. Field, of the Eoyal Mint, London, pursuant to
appointment, Avas read by Mr. Patterson.

«

^

^^F^ 'HI

Dec. 1, 1871.]

217

t Field.

Oh Unary Notice of

Sm JoiiK Frederick William Herschel, Bart.,

By Mr. Henry W. Field, of London.

Read before the American PhilosopJiical Society, December 1, 1871.

It is the painful duty of our Society to record the loss we have sus-
tained in our membership, aud indeed we may well say, the loss to the
world in general, by the decease of the illustrious Sir John F. ^Y. Her-

schel, Bart.

His father, Sir William Herschel, came from Hanover to England, in
1759, as one of the Hanoverian Guards' Band; and was for some time the
subject of disappointment and privation. He however became instructor
to a regimental band, stationed in the Korth, and fortunately obtained an
organist's appointment in Yorkshire, and subsequently at Bath. Here
it was that his taste for astronomy became developed, and from whence
his first papers, "Observations of the Periodical Star Mira Ceti " issued.
They were read before the Royal Society, in Loudon, on the 10th May,
1780.

In 1781, the results of his studios and speculations led to his great dis-
covery of Uranus (specially interesting from its leading to the discovery
of the remote planet Neptune) which placed him most prominent in Sci-
entific rank, which standing he retained until his death in 1822, being then
in his 84th year.

Mr. Herschel, our lamented membei-, (unlike his father who raised him-
self from the humble rank of a regimental musician) after being edu-
cated privately by a Mr. Rogers, at an early age entered St. John's College,
Cambridge, where by his great success and taste for science he graduated
B. A. in 1813. He came out in the Mathematical Tripos, Senior Wrangler;
an honor which was further enhanced by his attainment of the Fir s
Smith's Prize. That his year was what is called, in Cambridge, " a good
year," is evident from the names of the distinguished men of whom he
took precedence, such as the following :— Peacock, Dean of Ely ; Fallows,
late Astronomer Royal at the Cape ; Romilly, late Registrar of the Uni-
versity ; Amos, Mill, and other men of note, whose names adorn the Dot
partments of Science, Theology and Literature. It may be worth while
to note the feeling which subsisted among his fellow collegians ; Charles
Babbage, the mathematician (lately deceased) who coveted the honor of
of Senior AYrnnglership, but knowing the powers of his antagonist, Her-
schel, declined to appear in the Mathematical Tripos, choosing rather to

be at the Head of the Poll.

On the 27 May, 1818, he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and
became one of its most active members, receiving in 1821 the Copley

medal.

At his father's death he pursued that branch of science calied "Observ-
ing Astronomy, " and about this time he conceived the desirability of form-
ing a Special Society, and was most active in its foundation, the present
"Royal Astronomical Society."

A. P. S. — VOL. XII — 2b.

■ I ir

Field.]

218

, [Dec. 1,

^ L

i

In 1831j King William, as a tribute to his great scientific services con-
ferred ou him the honor of knighthood.

Sir John Hers'iChel's researches on the positions of Nebulae and clusters
of starSj took up many years of his life. Several of the results he pub-
lished in conjunction with Mr. (after Sir James) South, for which a re-
ward of a gold medal was presented to both Astronomers. Were it not
for the sincere love of science, the toil of these proceedings from mid-
night to sunrise would not have taken place; for no one can tell the strain
on the constitution, the severity of which is gleaned from his observations
while discussing the double stars. He remarked :

" Should I be fortunate enough to bring this work to a conclusion, I
shall then joyfully yield up a subject on which I have bestowed a large
portion of my time, and expended much of my health and strength, to
others who will, hereafter, by the aid of those masterpieces of workman-
shipj which modern art places at their disposal, pursue with comjiarative
ease and convenience an inquiry which has presented to myself difficulties
such as at one period had almost compelled me to abandon it, in despair."

In 1833, Sir John Herschel was awarded the Koyal Medal of the Royal
Society, for his paper " On the Investigation of the Orbits of Revolving
Double Stars." The Duke of Sussex, President, gave the following
graphic account of his labors :

"Sir John Herschel has devoted himself, as you well know, for many
years at least, as much from filial piety as from inclination, to the exam-
ination of those remote regions of the universe into which his illustrious
father first jjenetrated, and which he has transmitted to his son as a he-
reditary possession, with which the name of Herschel must be associated
for all ages. He has subjected the whole sphere of the heavens within
his observation, to a repeated and systematic scrutiny. He has determ-
ined the position and described the character of the most remarkable of
the Nebula). Tie has observed and registered many thousand distances
and angles of position of double stars, and has shown, from the compari-
son of his own with other observations, that many of them form systems,
whose variations of position are subject to invariable laws. He has suc-
ceeded by a happy combination of graphical construction with numerical
calculations, in determining the relative elements of the orbits which
some of them describe round each other, and in forming tables of their
motions ; and be has thus demonstrated that the laws of gravitation,
which are exhibited as it weie, in miniature in our own planetary system,
prevail also in the most distant regions of space ; a memorable conclusion
justly entitled by the generality of its character to be considered as form-
ing an epoch in the history of Astronomy, and presenting one of the

most niagnincent examples of the simplicity and universality of thosi
fundamental laws of nature, by which their great Author has shown that
he is the same to-day and for ever, here and everywhere.

" That he was not a mere meditative Philosopher, but one of laborious
research and of a practical turn, appeal's from the imposing catalogue of
his written works, a few of which I may be pardoned for enumerating; 13

i

1871.]

219

[Field.

papers on Optics ; 28 on Astronomy ; 10, Pure Mathematics , on Geol-
ogy ; on Photography ; on Chemistry ; on Natural Philosophy.

*' The Encyclopedia Britannica "boasts of excellent articles on Light and
Sound, and Meteorology, now published separately."

A Manual of Scientific Enquiry, published by the Admiralty.

The Philosophical Transactions contain many of his valuable re-
searches, especially those read before the Royal Society, 10 Xov., 1803,
Avhich will ever show his energy and perseverance in spite of the infirmi-
ties of his advancing age. In fact, turn where you may, light, emanating
from Sir John, seems to cast its beams on almost every department of

Science.

It may not be out of place to give an extract from his work " Outlines
of Astronomy," a book which liils the student's mind with enraptured
interest in the marvels which he reveals in plain and perspicuous lan-
guage ; for example :

•'There is no Science which, more than Astronomy, draws more largely
on that intellectual liberality which is ready to adopt whatever is demon-
strated, or concede whatever is rendered highly probable, however new
and uncommon the points of view may be, in which objects the most fa-
miliar may thereby become placed. Almost all the conclusions stand in
open and striking contradiction with those of superficial and vulgar ob-
servation, and with what appears to every one until he has understood
and weighed the proofs to tlie contrary, the most positive evidence of his
senses. Thus, the earth on which he stands, and which has served for
ages as the unshaken foundation of the firmest structures, either of art
or nature, is divested by the Astronomer, of its attribute of fixity ; and
conceived by him as turning swiftly on its centre, and at the same time
moving onwards througji space with great j-apidity. The sun and the moon,
which appear, to untaught eyes, round bodies of no very considerable size,
become enlarged on his imagination into vast globes : the one approach-
ing in magnitude to the earth itself; the other immensely surimssing it.
The planets which appear only as stars, somewhat brighter than the rest,
are to him spacious, elaborate and habitable worlds ; several of them
much greater and far more curiously furnished than the earth he inhabits,
as there are also others less so ; and the stars themselves, properly so-
called, which to ordinary apprehension present only lucid sparks or
brilliant atoms, are to him suns of various and transcendent glory, ef-
fulgent centres of life and light to myriads of unseen worlds. So that,
when after dilating his thoughts to comprehend lUc grandeur of those
ideas his calculations have called up, and exhausting his imagination and
tlie powers of his language to devise similes and metaphors illustrative of
the immensity of the scale on which his universe is constructed, he
shrinks back to his native sphere ; he finds it, in comparison, a mere
point ; so lost, even in tlic minute system to which it belongs, as to be
invisible and unsuspected from some of its principal and remote members."

Without fatiguing the Society, I think the following paragraph on the
study of Natural Philosophy, will be its own apology for insertion.

^J-^rJ,yJW-mrH'^'■-^ -^^r^H

■|t|l!(

Field.!

220

[Dec. 1,

*' Among the most remarkable of the celestial objects, ai'e the revolving
double stars, or stars which to the naked eye or to the inferior telescope
appear single, but if examined with high magnifying X)^^^!'^ ^^'^ found
to consist of two individuals i^laced almost close together, and which when
carefully watched are (many of them) found to revolve in regular elliptic
orbits about each other ; and, so far as we have as yet been able to ascer-
tain, to obey the same laws which regulate the planetary movements. There
is nothing calculated to give a greater idea of the scale on which the siderial
heavens are constructed than these beautiful systems. When we see such
magnificent bodies united in pairs, undoubtedly by the same bond of
mutual gravitation which holds together our own system, and sweeping
over their enormous orbits in periods comprehending many centuries, we
admit at once that they mxist be accomplishing ends in creation which
will remain for ever unknown to man ; and that we have here attained
a point in Science where the human intellect is compelled to acknowledge
its weakness, and to feel that no conception the wildest imagination can
form, will bear the least comparison with the intrinsic greatness of the
subject."

England was not the only spot from which he made his observations.
He found it desirable to carry on his investigations at the Cape of Good
Hope, and for this far off scene of inquiry he embarked with his family
at Portsmouth, 13 Nov., 1833. The course he prescribed to himself seems
to have been to restrict his labors almost, if not entirely, to Stellar As-
tronomy. Still he did not omit to make many careful observations of the
Nebula3 of Orion, of the Milky Way and of other heavenly phenomena ;
making accurate drawings, which he subsequently published.

In May, 1837, an extraordinary spot appeared on the sun's disc, the
marvel of which was much increased when Sir John published his calcu-
lation that the crater of this supposed volcano was sufficiently large to
allow the globe of the earth to pass in leaving all aTOund a margin of
1000 miles.

On his return to England, in 1838, after, as he states, enjoying ranch
happiness, together with the pleasures of good society, his grateful coun-
try bestowed upon him the dignity of a Baronetcy.

At this time, Photography beginning to attract much public attention,
Sir John turned his thoughts to this beautiful art, directing his inquiries

chiefly to that point so important to Photographers, the chemical action
of solar rays.

Of the value attached to Sir John's scientific attainments we have
abundant evidence in the instances in which he was called upon to occupy
the place of advisor and councilor. As member of the Board of Visitors
of the *' Royal Observatory," when he was appointed to receive the annual
report of its vt^orking and efficiency, a member of the " Standard Commis-
sion " on the question of the introduction of the ^'Metric System of
Weights and Measures ;" for many years as one of the leading members
of the Council of the Royal Society.

On the retirement of Davies Gilbe^'tj this venerable Society of savans

n-^p.>-d

ISTI]

221

[Field.

nearly succeeded in compvomisiiig its title, by almost electing the ple-
beian philosopher to the dignity of President, in preference to the Royal
patron of science and literature, the Duke of Sussex. So keen was the
contest that the subject of our memoir lost it only by 3 votes in a meet-
ting of 240 members. He was President of the Astronomical Society
thi^e times. In 184o, he presided at the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science at Cambridge. Many learned European societies,
beside those of liis own country, rejoiced to inscribe his name on their
rolls ; but to none of them will our American Philosophical Society yield
in its admiration, of this great citizen of the Republic of Literature and
Science, as evinced by the bestowal upon him of their diploma of member-
ship. In 1842, he was elected Lord Rector of Marischal College, Aber-
deen.

The last of his public ofiicial positions, previously to his retirement into
the quietude of a country life at Collingwood, in Kent, was that of Master
of the Mint, to which he was appointed December IG, 1850, and which he
retained until Professor Graham's appointment, April 27, 1855. In
this office Sir John was a worthy successor of the g]-cat Sir Isaac Kewton,
who filled that office in the reign of WiUiam III.

In subsequent times, the Mastership acquired a political character and
was conferred generally on members of the Cabinet, which continued
until what is known familiarly amongst Mint employes, the Revolution
of '51, by which the old system of. charters, indentures and contracts for
the meltings and coinages, being considered antiquated, it was desired
by the higher powers to abolish. Naturally, this move caused much
alarm and dissatisfaction ; the distastefulness of which was, however,
greatly modified by the gentle and considerate manner in which Sir John
exercised the authority entrusted to him.

The labor and anxiety inseparable from a reconstruction of so imitort-
ant an establishment, much impaired the health of the subject of this
memoir. Still his mental vigor did not succumb to bodily iniirraity, as
daily he was at his post about 11 o'clock, rarely leaving till 5 or 6 p. m-,
when he might be seen walking out with his portfolio under his arm, filled
with papers to consider and revise, as an evening amusement.

Among the many alterations made by Sir John, he framed and calcu-
lated tables for standarding the various qualities of gold and silver, which
superseded those said to have been Sir Isaac JSTewton's.

He sanctioned the abandonment of " Trial Plates" (designated by Sir
John "Fiducial Pieces") which had been prepared from time to time
and used for centuries, and presumed to be mathematically of the due
proportions of the pure noble metal, but not really so. In lieu of this
practice Sir John directed the Queen's Assay Master to use his best en-
deavors to obviate the evil, so that no officer of a foreign mint should be
able to question the conventional purity of our British coin as being other

than for gold 91fi.G, and for silver 925.

In giving eftect to the Master's wishes, the Queen's Assay ^Master
worked out the important correction by preparing and introduciug chem-

l

{LI !

Field ]

222

[Pec. 1,

jcally pure gold and silver, in place of the standard trial plates. The
following extract from Sir Jolm's correspondence may be appropriately

introduced here.

*' The almost mathematical coincidence of the result of the Pyx (about

30 millions) with the legal standard, is the best proof which can be ad-
duced of the admirable system of working the nssays."

As illustrative of the unfailing kindness of this great man towards
friends, as well as towards those, who had had the happiness to serve
under him, tlie writer may be pardoned for introducing some of his last
utterances contained in a letter, penned only five weeks before his depart-
ure to those rcahns of Light aud Truth, amidst the wonders of which,
while in the flesh, he loved to live.

'* I am suffering under an attack of Bronchitis, which has lasted me nil
the winter, so excessively severe that I can hardly liold the pen, which
must excuse the brevity of this, aud being now in my 80th year, I can
hope for no relief. I shall retain, how^ever, to ilie last, a pleasing recol-
lection of aid and support I received from you during the period of my
administration of the Mint, and I know you will believe me ever, my
dear sir, yours, most truly,

To H. W. F. (Signed) J. F. W. RERSCHEL.

In his domestic circle, he could unbend to the capacity of the young,
in whose amusements he joined with spirit, and considering his advanced
years, with wonderful energy. It may be instanced that, only a few years
back, the great astronomer condescended to enter cordially into the
children's Christmas gambols, and played in the most animated manner
the part of Sir George with the Dragon ; habiting himself in a coat of
mail, extemporized from various culinary articles. His impromptu dia-
logue with his son as "the Dragon," was said by the elders to be ab-
surdly clever. *'The Herschels do everything well " was a common way
of speaking of the philosopher and his family ; so here the Dragon was
so life-hke, though made only of brown paper with a scarlet cloth tongue,
and the knight looked so doughty, that the tableau nearly sent one of the
children into convulsions.

Sir John F. W- Ilcrschel, Bart,, K. H., D. C. L., &c., was born at
Slough, near Windsor, 7 March, 1792. He married, in 1829, Margaret
Brodie, daughter to the Rev. Dr. Alexander Stewart, by whom he had a
family of three sons and nine daughters. One is married to General, the
Hon. Alexander Gordon, uncle of the present Lord Aberdeen, and now
heir presumptive to that title. His youngest son is an ofticer in the Royal
Bengal Engineers. He is succeeded in the title by his son Mr. William
James Herschel, of the Bengal Civil Service, who w^as born in 1833 and
married in 18G4, Anne Emma Haldane Ilardcastle, daughter of the late
Mr. Alfred Ilardcastle, of Hatch am, Surrey.

Sir John died at his seat, CoUingwood, Ilawkhurst, Kent, on Thiu-s-
day, the 11th May, 1871, at 10 o'clock A. M., being in his 80th year. He
was buried in Westminster Abbey, on Tuesday, the 19th May. His re^

/

1871.1

223

t Field

mains were followed by the Presidents and many members of the various
learned societies of England, also by the chief men of science in London.

The well-known Dean Stanley officiated on the mournful occasion, and
on the following Sunday delivered in the Abbey one of his beautiful char-
acteristic sermons, which may be found in extenso, in the July number of
"Good Words," p. 453 (a work to which he occasionally contributed
some popular papers on the wonders of the Universe). The Dean took
his text from the 14th and 15th verses of the 1st chapter of Genesis.

"And God said let there be lights iu the firmament of the Heaven to
divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs and for seasons
and for days and years; and let them be for lights in the firmament of
the heaven to give light upon the earth; and it was so."

Glancing at the private sentiments of Sir John, in these days, when there
appears to be an increasing antagonism between science and revelation,
it is refreshing to remember how frequently iu his writings, and in con-
versation with some of his friends, strong indications are observable, that
the lofty mind of him who was a master in the science of the starry
heavens could penetrate into higher regions still, and forget the proud
achievements of intellect and science, in the humility of the adoring
Christian; a humility which also manifested itself towards man in count-
less acts of generous sympathy and consideration. Of him truly it may
be said in the language of a poetical tribute to his memory, which has
recently appeared in a periodical of the day ("Good "Words'')-

^'Science aiuUcanuiig led ;i!\smind, in reverent awe above;
To \um the voices of the stars proclainf d their Maker's love.

ij

In the above sketch of the scientific, offtcial and personal character of
the departed- it will be sufficiently apparent that with numberless other as-
sociations of the learned and scientific, in the decease of Sir John Herschel,
our Society has to deplore the loss of a member whose name adorned the

catalogue.

Mr. Dubois offered the following paper upon a giiasi Coin,
of Copper, affirmed to have been found at a great depth, in
Illinois.

Tlie annual reports of the Treasurer and Publication Com-
mittee were read and referred.

679 to 682, and new nomination 6.8'3

Pendino" nominations
were read; and the meeting was adjourned.

^ _ _ r ^i^__uiAvai

il'ilJ[|i!:i

Dubois.]

224

[Dec. 1,

t(

Soil, o

On a quasi Coin kepokted found in a bouing in Illinois;

Read before the American Philosophical Society, Bee. 1, 1871,

' By Wm. E. Dubois.

In July last, a letter was received at the Bniitlisoinan Institute, from
Mr. Jacob AY, Moffit, of Chillicotbe, Peoria county, Illinois, enclosing the
pliotograyli of a medal or coin, witli the following particulars in relation

to it :

''In August 1870, I took a contract of sinking a tubular well for Mr.

Peter Cline, in this county. I had two men employed to assist in the

labor, who are cognizant of all the facts connected with the finding of the

coin.

"The following are the several strata through which we passed. We

used a common ground auger, three inch bore :

3 feet. Yellow clay, 10 ; blue c^ay, 44 ; clay, sand, and gravel 4 ;
purple clay, 19 ; brown ''hard pan," 10 ; green clay, ^ ; vegetable mould,
2 ; yellow clay, ^ ; yellow hard pan, 2 ; mixed clay, 20|-.

"Jlerc we brought up the coin,on the auger, from a depth of one hundred

and twenty- five feet.

"It has been examined by gentlemen in Chicago and St. Louis, without
any result in explaining the mystery of its origin or date. It is my desire
that a further investigation be made. I ca.n, if necessary, send afBdavits
of myself and other parties as to the truth of these statements."

[Signed] Jacob W. Moffit.

Ic may here be added, that the place is in a great prairie, near the
centre of the State, and near the Illinois river ; about 80 miles east of the

Mississippi river.

Professor Henry having repeatedly referred rare coins to me, took the
same course on this occasion, giving leave to communicate the facts to

this society, if it was thought proper.

An examination of the piece itself was necessary ; and in reply to my
request the owner forwarded the same, with further details, to wit :

" In ansvi^er to your questions I must say, that very few wells or shafts
in this region have attained a depth of more than 50 or 75 feet, except in
the valleys, where occasionjtlly we find a well, through sand and gravel

drift, at the depth of 100 feet.

*' The only token of civilization discovered at a similar depth, in this
State, was taken from a shaft in Whiteside county, about 20 years ago.
The workmen at the depth of 120 feet discovered a large copper ring or
ferrule, similar to those used on ship spars at the present tinae. They also
found something fashioned like a boat-hook.

" There are numerous instances of relics found at lesser depths. A spear-
shaped hatchet, made of iron, was found imbedded in clay at 40 feet ;
and stone pipes and pottery have been unearthed at depth varying from

10 to 50 feet in many localities.

"No rational estimate has ever been made of the rate of annual earthy
deposit. Our prairie land seems to have been built up by a deposit from

^

'hi^^-

1871.]

225

[Dubois.

^

waters whose current set in from the N. W., changing its course only
wlien in contact with some (then) eminence now far below the surface.
The soil is seldom over three feet in thickness, nsnally underlaid by a yel-
low hard-pau of two to three feet. Wood is quite comnjon at all depths
at which wells have been sunk in blue clay.

" Nothing has been found in any of the Western mounds (as far as I
am informed) bearing any resemblance in form or character to this coin.

'*0n takinjx the ^oin from the auj^er, I washed the clay from it with
water. It then presented no appearance of corrosion, bearing a dull red
hue, such as is common to old copper. However, after a few minutes^
exposure to the air, it began to blacken, and in a short time was en-
crusted with a dark green, gummy coat, which I allowed to harden, and
then removed by friction."

Thus far from Mr. ^loffit. I learn from another source, that Chillicothe
is built upon an alluvium of the Illinois i-iver, very sandy, loose, and easily
washed away. The river thereabouts is widened into a lake, about one
mile and a quarter wide, and twelve miles long. The French pioneers
went through that region, about the close of the seventeenth century.
Whether the ground on which Chillicothe stands, has been made by the
river, to the depth of 125 feet, since the entrance of the whites, is a point
on which the residents there, with or without geological instruction, can-
not venture an opinion.

As to the facts as above stated, there is every reason to rely upon their
accuracy. I have to add some remarks ou the physical and artistical
traits of the coin itself. ^

* Properly speaking, it is not a coin or medal, since the marks upon it
have not been produced by striking, but by engraving or e*:ching ; and
they are sunken, or intaglio. It is of copper in good condition, in shape
polygonal approacliing to circular, about one and an eighth inch in
diameter; somewhat pitted by corrosions, and with very rude figures and
inscriptions ou both sides. The central image on one side is that of a
man, or a child ; on the other are two animals, one of them like a wild
cat, with conspicuous ears. The legends arc plain enough, to any one
who can read them ; but being somewhere between Arabic and Phono-
graphic, without being either, they are sufficiently puzzling. Happily
wo have members whose knowledge of paleography may throw some
light. For myself, I have seen nothhig like it.

As to the other artistic characters, the metal proves, by a delicate gauge,,
to be very uniform in thi<5kness ; more so than could be attained by the
beating out of a hammer in savage hands. I therefore feel sure it has
passed through a rolling-mill ; and if the ancient Indians had such a con-
trivance, it must have been pre-historic.

There are other tokens of the nuichiue shop. Any one can see that the
piece has been shaped, not with much symmetry, with shears or chisel;
and the sharp edge taken down with a file. Coins or medals were not

+

thus finished in ancient times, but they were in the middle ages, and iu

;:[r

A. r. S. — VOL. XII

3c,

Dubois. ]

226

iUCC. 1,

,'i^

Spanish America down to about 150 years past. (Tapping the edge with

a hammer, was also in use);

If the figures and characters were made with a tool, it must have been
a very rud"^ one, since a "ilat-nosed" graver would have left a smooth
trough, while here it is rough and granular. This would suggest the
greater likelihood of eichi7i(j, were it not inconceivable that so advanced
an art should have been practiced long ago on the Western prairies. The
mineral acids, used for sucli work, were nowhere known until about the
fourteenth century ; and in Illinois, while we might suppose ac/ua ardienie,
we cannot concede aqua fortis, longer ago than one century. On the
whole, it has been worked out with a very crude instrument.
• As to the condition of the piece, and the discolorations; it is well known
that copper, exposed to the air, ac(pures a sui)erficial sub-oxide or dioxide,
which protects it from further destruction. Very many ancient copper
coins have been turned up by the spade or plough, which with a little
cleauing up, look as if just out of the mint. I herewith show a specimen
of Tetricus, a Roman usurper of the purple, in France, about A. D. 270;
entirely free from corrosion. I also show a more interesting piece, which
with many othei'S, was ploughed up in the southern part of England,
about 30 years ago. They were all so encrusted as to be illegible, and
the owner gave me a choice at haphazard. On removing the coat of mail,
and leaving only the mixture of brown and black oxides, it turned out to
be a coin of Carausius, who established himself as a Roman Emperor in
Britain, A. D., 287; as long before William the Conqueror, as William
was before Victoria. This piece is rare and in perfect order, and forms a

part of the Mint collection.

Some ancient coins, especially those with a slight alloy of tin or cala-
mine, making them bronze or brass, are beautifully coated and protected
with the green carbonate, the same as that which formed on the lUinois
piece before cleaning. I herewith show one of these patinated pieces, a
eoin of Augustus, also from the Mint Cabinet. They may have been in
favorable hiding-places, such as cinerary urns, or columbaria.

All things considered, I cannot regard this TllinoiB piece as ancient, nor
^Id, (observing the usual distinction) ; nor jet recent; because the "tooth

of time" is plainly visible.

What the piece was made for, is a part of the inquiry. Not for current
money, because it would take a long time to make a handful ; morelikely
a work of amusement, possibly to exercise the antiquarians. But how
it got into such a deep place, supposing it a bona fide discovery which I
«annot call in question, is a very perplexing point, and I gladly hand over
the explanation to any one willing to undertake it. Certainly it seems,
in connection with the finding of the copper ring, and other articles of
iron and wood, at considerable depths, to form an item in the study of
the formation of the superficial strata in that interesting section of our

r

country.

Since the foregoing was written, I am favored with the suggestions (in

writbig) of Professor Lesley. He suspects that if anything, it is an

astroh7gical amulet. There are upon it the signs of Pisces and Leo. The

i\=J

^'fZi ' ■ s

1-871.]

227

[Dubois.

I

y

figures, on the obverse and reverse faces corres])ond in the attitude of the
left arm raised and flourishing a whip, or thunderbolt. He reads the date
1573, and says that no geologist can accept the statement that a piece
of that age could be lying naturally at a depth of 125 feet, under an
Illinois prairie. The piece was placed there as a practical joke, though
not by the present owner; and is a modern fabrication; perhaps of the
sixteenth century; possibly of llispano-American, or French-American
■origin. It may have some connection with the journeys of the early
French priests or their voyageurs.

I would only add, that those views are forcible, but yet they take
imposture for granted, and in so doing, leave us in this dilemma ; that a
curious piece was made many years ago, and held for tlie purpose of trick,
until a deep hole should be made, long afterwards, in which to bury it,
and complete the deception. It is also very hard to believe, that an
intelligent and, experienced operator in this line would allow himself to be
sported with by workmen, and take so much pains, far and near, to
ascertain what kind of article he had found.

Mr. Lesley explained :

■i*if

lie considered the integrity, experience and vigilance of the well sinker
no guarantee against the surreptitious insertion of the coin. It is impos-
sible to prevent a practical joke of that sort when the jester is resolved to
have it so. Experience furnishes a thousand proofs of this in our exten-
sive oil regions, where all kinds of rubbish have been brought to the sur-
face from considerable depths ; nails, anthracite coal, California nuggets,
''butter of antimony," Lake Superior Red hematite iron ore, &c.

It looks as if there is a good deal of this sort of thing going on in the
west. The copper-ring and boat-hook ''taken from a shaft at Whitside;
at a depth of 130 feet," "the iron spear-shaped hatchet einbedded in clay
at 40 feet" mentioned in the paper, are subjects for the same incredulity.
The only possible explanation, excluding an imputation of fraud, in the
hitter case, would presuppose the recent filling up of a hole in the river
bed with clay, through wliicli a piece of iron might slowly settle down.

The discovery of a circular stone fire-place, with embers, by Mr.
Latrobe's party of engineers in a gravel cut for the road bed of the Balti-
more and Ohio K. R., many years ago, at a depth of 50 or GO feet beneath
the surface, is a circumstance belonging to quite a dilFerent category.

In the present case we have an evident imitation of Mediterranean coins.
But the central figures are unmistakably Red Indian in their character.
It is either unique of its kind, or one of a very small class. The proba-
bilities against a borehole striking such an object are simply infinity to
one. The improbabilities of the coin being at or near the surface, and
being worked out from the wall of the hole by the friction of the rods, is
equally great. There is too much method in the arrangement of the
elements of the legend to doubt that the maker had a definite idea to
express. A compound oval symbol occupies the right edge on each face,
and may have a phallic significance. But the two human jfigures on one

^+^JJ i-L -M iw—nJr^M

■ ir^'frL ^ L^i-^ -^1^ ^:4r.^>:n4h ■■_ ^

■T -"■^^^ tyh«.-^^iJJ^^_Li*±v-_u_ yA<

-^■r:ii_\js — |C_^V^ir.xJ^?tJ^i^ti-L4-^^--,/ P— --H"i■^— ^ -i ^.^.^t^-V— ' h^ ^-^ii^iiJ^tftlAb JL^-_^»ii_:^:_P.^'JSr. Li^ Jl-^i^,!.^ -^ f^**^ ^ S V. ^yj^TiTjl^JT'^

?^;4^^-'^^-^

228

face seem rather to be in conflict than in conjunction. The licad dress
may repi^eseiit hair, or may represent the Indian warrior's featlier crest.

Professor Trego remarked tliat lie liad seen the once famous grave
mound relic and the man "wlio discovered" and possessed it, and believed
it to be fraudulent. He had no faith in such discoveries in the west.

'^4

» >

'^i^

Stated Meeting^ Dccewher 15, 1871-

Present, twelve members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the chair.

Letters of aeknowlcdgment were received from the Anthro-
pological Institute of G. V). and Ireland, Nov. 24, 1871, (83,
84, 85, 8(3, and Trans., Part 1, 1870). The N. Y. d. P. E. u.
W. at Bonn, Peb. 5. 1871 (82,88). Ttie N. Ges. Eniden.,
Sept. 21, 1871 (84, ^b)] and the Linncan Society at Bordeaux,
July 12, 1870 (78, 79).

Letters of envoy were received from the Societies at Bor-
deaux and Enidcn, Sept. 22, 1871; the Geographical Society
at Vienna, Sept. 8, 1871 ; the American Legation at the
Hague, Nov. 28, 1871; and the U. S. Naval Observatory,

Dec. 5, 1871.

The death of Count Agenor Etienne de Gasparin, in June

last, was announced by the Secretary.

Professor Cope communicated his views on the Method of
Creation of Organic Forms, with illustrations on the black-
board .

Professor Cope added a Catalogue of Pythonomorpha found

in the Cretaceous strata of Kansas.

Pending nominations 679 to 683, and new nominations 684

to 688 wore read.

■'^lii

'Dec. 15, 1871.]

229

[Cope.

On motion of Mr. Price, the following resolution was adopted:

Resolved, Thnt the Treasurer be authorized to pay to the Treasurer of
"the Fuirmount Park Coiniuissioners, three hundred dollars C$300) of the
interest or rent lately received on the Michaux Legacy, to l)e applied to-
wards the Michaux Grove and Michaux Kursery of Oaks in the Park,
a.grecably to the resolution of March ISth, tSTO (see page 313, Vol. XL,
Proceedings A. P. S.)

And the meeting w\as then adjourned.

THE METHOD OF CREATION OF ORGANIC FORMS.

By Ed. D. Cope.

{Ueiul hefovG ilbo Anurican Pldlosoplilcal Societyy Decemher lotJi, 187L)

^Chapter I. — On the Law of Accelehation and Retakdation.
Nature of law of Natural selection. Two kinds of evidence. Ilhjs-
tration. Examples from cervidge, helicidte, insects and men.

Ohapteu II.— The Law of Repetitive Addition. Segment and cell
repetition. Illustration from limbs and vertebral cohnmi. A, On seg-
ment addition; detinltions. On repetition in bilateral and anteroposterior
symmetry; in structure of compound teeth; in segments of articulata;
limbs of Peptilia; brain of lamprey. B, On cell repetition; simple seg-
ment a repetition of cells; simple diverticulum the same. The cell
■ theory; the imoleatctl cell. 0, Synthesis of repetition. Prom unicell-
ular to muHiccUular animals; simple repetition to compound repe-
tition; Actuhia, Lcpido.'iU-e/ij IcJUhi/osuarus, Plesiosatirus, Taiiiia; the
heart; mammalian teetli. L), On growth force; rehition to other
forces; definition. E, Direction of repetition, its location, centrifugal
and longitudinal; movements longitudinal. Inheritance; its relation
to growth force.

OnAPTEii III. — Tub Law of Use and Effort. Points to be investi-
gated. A, On the location of growth force. Relation of eifort to use.'
Rudimental characters. Examples of growth under inlluence of phys-
ical laws; Examples of colors under inlhicnce of light. Use and disuse
of gills. Rattlesnake; horned animals. Teeth of ruminants. B, Change
in amount of growth force. Local increase of growth force. Convo-
luted structures; brain, teeth, cotyledons. Absolute loss of growth
force. Teeth and toes of Ruminants; incisors of Rodents.

Chaptek IV.— On Ghade Influence. A, On the nature of Grade
inflnence or Bathmism. Definitions. In plants; in animals. Increase
in time of Bathmism and growth force. Vital forces and vital intiuenees.
Thought force. Origin of Bathmism in time. B, Physiological origin
of Bathmism. Function of nervous system in force conversion. Au-
tomatic and habitiud movements. Effect on nervous system. C, Tlie
transmission of grade inlluence. Secretion in general. Spermatozooids.

^Chapteii V.^ntelltgent Selection. Development of intelligence.
Stimuli to use. Compulsion, Choice; Bees, Pood, Rattlesnake; Change
-of color; Mimetic analogy, Examples. Development of character.

f

Cope.]

230

[Dec. 15.

In the present state of biological science, essays like the present can
only be tentative in so far as they ti'cafc of the laws of evolution. Kever-
thelcKS the present time is prei-'minently one of generahzation in this
field, and properly so. Facts have been accumulating for a long period,
and are now sufficiently numerous to yield important results, under proper
classification and induction. Darwin led the way in this work, and
the development hypothesis is regarded as demonstrated by most biolo-
gists. The discussion of the laws of its progress involves a multitude of
subordinate hypotheses. In the following essay, these are arranged
under five prominent heads, viz: 1, The law of Acceleration and Retarda-
tion; 2. The law of Kepetitive Addition; 3. The law of Use and Effort;
4. The law of Grade Inlhience; 5. The law of Intelhgent Selection. Of
these, the first and second are regarded by the author as demonstrated,
the third and fourth as only reduced to a partial demonstration, while
the fifth is a consequence of the third, and stands or falls with it.

The discussion of this subject divides itself into two parts, viz: a con-
sideration of tJie proof that evolution of organic types or descent with
modification has taken place; and secondly, the investigation of the laws
in accordance with which this development has progressed. As the latter
involves the use of the evidence included in the former, I will not de-
vote a special chapter to the proof for evolution.

The intluences and forces which have operated to produce the type
structures of the animal kingdom liave been plainly of two kinds; t.
Origi'iiaiwe, 3. Directive. The prime importance of the former is obvi-
ous; that the latter is only secondary in the order of time or succession,
is evident from the fact that it controls the x>reservation or destruction of
the results or creations of the first, and thus furnishes the bases of the
exhibitions of the originative forces in the production of the successive
generations of living beings.

Wallace and Darwin have propounded as the cause of modifica-
tion in descent their law of natural selection. This law has been ep-
itomized by Spencer as the "survival of the fittest." This neat ex-
pression no doubt covers the case, but it leaves the origin of the fittest en-
tirely untouched. Darwin assumes a "tendency to variation " in nature,
and it is plainly necessary to do this, in order that materials for the exer-
cise of a selection should exist. Darwin and Wallace's law is, tlien, only
restrictive, directive, conservative, or destructive of something already
created. I propose then to seek for the originative laws by which these
subjects are furnished— in other words, for the causes of the origin of the

fittest.

It has seemed to the author so clear from the first as to require no dem-
onstration, that Natural Selection includes no actively progressive principle
whatever; that it must first w:iit for the development of variation, and
then after securing the survival of the best, wait again for the best to pro-
ject its own variations for selection. In the question as to wliethcr the
latter are any better or worse than the characters of the parent, natural
selection in no wise concerns itself.

1871.]

231

[Cope.

\

U

I. ON the; law of ACCELEIiATION AND RETAEDATION.

There are two modes of demon.stration of evolution, both depending on
direct observation. One of these has been successfully presented by
Darwin. Pie has observed the origin of varieties in animals and plants,
either in the domesticated or wild states, and has sliown, what had been
liiiown to many, the lack of distinction in the grades of diiicrence which
separate varieties and species. But lie has also pointed out that species
(such, so far, as distinctness goes) have been derived from other species
among domesticated anhnalSj and he infers by induction that other spe-
cies, whose origin has not been observed, have also descended from com-
mon parents. So far, I believe his induction to be justiiied ; but when
from this basis evolution of divisions defined by important structural

't

characters, as genera, orders, classes, etc., is inferred, I believe that we
do not know enough of the uniformity' of nature's processes in the prem-
ises to enable us to j'egard this kind of ])roof as conclusive.

J therefore appeal to another mode of proving it, and one which covers
the case of all the more really structural features of animals and plants.

It is well known that in both kingdoms, in a general way, the young
stages of the more perfect types are represented or imitated with more or
less exactitude by the adults of inferior ones. But a true identity of these
adults with the various stages of the higher has, comparatively, rarely
been observed. Let such a case be supposed.

In A'^ we have four species whose growth attains a given point, a certain
luimber of stages having been passed ])rior to its termination or maturity.
In B we have another series of four (the number a matter of no import-
ance), which, during the period of growth, cannot be distinguished by
any common, i. e., generic character, from the individuals of group A,
but whose growth has only attained to a point short of tluit reached by
tliose of group ^4 at maturity. Here we have a parallelism, but no true
evidence of descent. But if we now find a set of individuals belonging to
one species, or still better, the individuals of a single brood, and therefore
held to have had a common origin or j)arcntage, which present differences
among themselves of the character in question, we have gained a point,
We know in this case that the individuals, -'.', have attained to the com-
pleteness of character presented by group A, while others, h, of tJie same
parentage have only attained to the structure of those of group B. It is
perfectly obvious that the individuals of the iirst part of the family have
grown further, and, therefore, in one sense faster, than those of group I),
If the parents were like the individuals of the more completely grown,
then the off'sju-ing which did not attain that completeness may be said to
have been retarded in their development. If, on the other hand, the
parents were like those less fully grown, then the olfspring which have
added something, have been accelerated in their development.

I claim that a consideration of the uniformity of nature's processes, or
inductive reasoning, requires me (however it may affect the minds of
others) to believe that the groups of species, whose individuals I have

*A cut t;.\plainiuj,^ this proportion will be found at tin; end of tlie cs;>ay.

1

Cope. J

232

[Dec. 35,

\i\

never found to vary, but -vYUicli ditfer in the same point as those in whic]i
I liave observed the above variations, are also derived fiom eommon par-
i^nts, and the more advanced have been accelerated or the less advanced
retarded, as the case may have been with regard to the parents.

This is not an imaginary case, but a true representation of many which
have come under observation. The developmental resemblances men-
tioned are universal in the animal, and i>iobably in the vegetable king-
doms, approaching the exactitude above depicted in proportion to the
near structural similarity of the species considered.

Example 1 . It is well known that the Germdm of the Old World develop
a basal snag of the antler, (see Cuvier, Ossemens Fossiles, and Gray, Oat.
British Museum,) at tlic third year; a majority of those of the New
World (genera Subulo, Cariacus) never develop it" except in abnormal
cases in the most vigorous maturity of the most northern Cariacus (C.
mrginianUs)^ while the South American Subulo retains to adult age the
simple horn or spike of the second year of all (JervidcB.

Among the liigher Gerwidm, Rusa and Axis never assume characters
beyond an equivalent of the fourth year of Cervus. In Dama the char-
acters are, on the other hand, assumed more rapidly than in Cervus, its
third year corresponding to the fourth of the latter, and the develoi^ment
in after years of a broad plate of bone, with pouits being substituted for
the addition of the corresponding snags, thus commencing another series
which terminates in the grtsat fossil elk, Megacei-us.

Returning to the American doer we have Blastocerus, whose antlers
are identical with the fourtli year of Cariacus. Corresponding with the
Bama-Mcgacerus type of the Old W^orld we have the moose (Alecs) de-
veloping the same palmate horn on the basis of Cariacus (i. e., without
eye-snag.)

Example 2. — T select the following series, embracing the majority of
the genera of the North American Ilelicidas."^

1. Turns of spire very few ; wide umbilicus ; shell thin, with thin

lips Binneya.

2. Tarns few, but more ; rest as above Yitrina,

15. Turns still more numerous ; rest as above IlijoUiia.

4- As No. 8, but lip thickened inside llyijromia.

5. Coiled; timhilicui^ closed; lip thickened inside and out,

Tachea and Pomatia.

6. Same, with a parietal tooth Mesodon.

7. Same, with parietal and two interior lip teeth Isof/)iomosto)aa.

* * Recommencing at No. 4. All with open umhilicuH.

5. As No. 4, but lip thickened in and out Arionia>

6. Same as No. 5, but with parietal tooth Volymiia.

7. Same, with both parietal and lip teetli Tviodopsu.

* S*;e Tryoii, Terrestrial MoUusca ol tlie Uiiitoa Slates. Probably other (c. g. dental)
characters distiui^uish sojiie of these {:Ceuera, but the above lurnishes the history of oiie
set of characters.

1871.]

233

[Cope,

The successional relation of these genera may be rexM-esented in such a

diagram as this :

7
6
6
i
3
2
1

Umbilicus open.
*

*
*
*
*

Umbilicus closed.

In the history of the growth of the genera Tsognoraostoma and Trio-
■dopsis, the extreme forms of the two series, it is well known that at first
the coils of the shell are extremely few, as in Binneya ; and that like it,
it is very thin and with a delicately thin edge ; that the turns increase
successively in number, as in Yitrina and Hyalina, and that iinally the
lip thickens as in Hygroniia. Then the umbilicus may close as in Tachea,
or (in Triodopsis) remain open as in Arionta. In cither case a tooth is soon
added on the body whorl (Polymita, Mcsodon), and finally, tlie full ma-
turity of tlio shell is seen in the added teeth of the inside of tlie lip margin.
How many of the stages of the genera Triodopsis and Mesodon are identi-
cal with the genera of the series which represent them, I leave to more
thorough conchologists, but that some now exhibit and all have once
presented illustrations of the relation of exact parallelism, I cannot doubt.

ExainpU 1.— An abundant race of the American deer, Cariacus mryi-
nia-mcs^ exists in the Adirondack region of New York, in which the de-
velopment of the antlers never progresses beyond the spike stage of the
second year. Therefore, some individuals of this si^eeies belong to Cari-
acus and some to Subulo.

Example 2. — A large part of the individuals of the common snail, Meso-
don albolahrls, never develop the tooth of the body-whorl, characteristic
of the genus whose definition has to be modified to retain them.

Example 3. — Many individuals of Triodopsis iridentata from eastern
North Carolina occur without the lip-teeth, chsiracteristic of the genus
Triodopns. Hence these specimens, though of common origin with others
of the species, must be referred to another genus.

Example 4. — Structural characters are known in many, if not all, species
which are said to be "inconstant," being present or absent indifferently,
thus being useless for definition. They may be rudimental wlien present
or considerably developed. The presence or absence of wings in some
species of insects may be cited; also the presence of generic charncters

r

in the male sex of many Coleoptera and their absence in the females.
The characters of males, females, workers and soldiers in bees and ants
may be added. All these facts belong to the same category as those cited
;among deer and mollusks and have a similar explanation.

Example 5. — It does not seem to be the law in *' retardation " that par-
allelisms exhibited by the series in its rise to its highest point of develop-
inent should retrace tlie steps by which it attained it, and that '^ exact

A. p. S.— VOL. XII.

D.

i-^i—r^ ii^iBj-n V. ij^i^j,— rr^wjjr rrjmr^r.r.mnrrjrrjtrjt ii-^- nil nbi ni _^ rrr—rr. lh v__i_

I _^ ■'■^^^^ 4Lrm&^r^^^KT>r^-J>^JJJ-^L>rCC1L

hK^J,iLJ_al**yd*^.■V-^^^^*l^^r*M-■-'*^-^yKy^rf^LLa^-flrT>^f >M-t.-iS-.rrfj^r^^^ ■^■■^T^V

- n ^ I ■'^

t.C_- ./^

Cope.]

234

[Bee. 15,

parallelisms" should be exliibited in a reversed order. Parallelisms, it is
true, are exhibited; but so far as I have observed always '* inexact,"
often in a high degree. A marked case of retardation occurs in the den-
tal development of a number of persons who have come under my obser-
vation in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. It is not very uncommon to
find persons in whom the third molars in both jaws are incomplete as to
number, one, two, three, or all, being deficient. It is still more common
for them to be incompletely covered by the enamel layer, and to become
in consequence so worthless as to require early removal. I am acquainted
with two families in which the absence of the exterior upper incisor on
each side is common. In one of these the second and third generation
have inherited it from the mother's side, and it now characterizes many
of the children. The significance of this modification will be best under-
stood by examining the dental structures of the Quadriwiana in general.
Commencing with the highevSt family and its abnormal dentition, we

have :—

I

Incisors. Canines. Premolars. Molars-

TTominuhp ' ' -^ At>normal. i \ f |-|

Jlom>tnia<p,^^ (Normal. f -J- | -|

Simiidm | \ | |

Cehidm f -}- | -|

Lemnridm I \ |-| f

Mammalia^ Normal. ..... | \ J f

In this table we see a decline in the number of teeth of the higher
groups. Thus, the premolars are one less than the normal number in the
whole order, and they lose one in eacli jaw in the Old World apes, and
man. The molars maintain the normal number throughout, but the third
in both jaws is in the SimiidcB reduced by the loss of a fifth or odd tuber-
cle, thus becoming four-lobed. In the upper jaw, this is first lost in
the Semnopithecus; in the lower, in the next highest genus Cercopithecus.
In Homo its appearance is "retarded," the interval between that event
and the protrusion of the second molar—six to ten years — being relatively
greater than in any genus of (liiadrumana. Its absence is then the re-
sult of continued retardation, not of a new and adaptive suppression, and
is of direct systematic zoological value.

In the incisors a reduction is also plainly visible, as we pass from the
most completely furnished mammals to the genus Homo. One from the
upper jaw is first lost, then in the Cehidm, one from tlie lower also. The
number remains the same through tlie SimMdai and normal Ilominidoiy
but in the abnormal cases cited, the process of reduction is continued and
another incisor from each side disappears. That this also is truly "re-
tardation" is also evident from the fact, that the exterior incisor is the
last developed, being delayed in ordinary growth a year later than those
of tlie inner pair. The same retardation is seen in the quadrumane UieAr-
omys (the Aye-aye), and the whole order Rodeniia. In the latter, the
rare presence of the reduced second incisors, as in Lepus, shows a less de-

J

i-

i

i

r

1871.]

235

[Cope.

grce of this modification. This retanlation is also of systematic importance,
and, siionld either of the characters described be constant in any of tlie
species of the genus Homo, would at once entitle it to new generic rank.
The very frequent absence of the posterior molars (wisdom teeth) has
been recently found to characterize a race in India. Should this peculi-
arity prove constant, this race would with propriety be referred to as a
new genus of IIominid% as we have many cases of very similar species
being ref<;rred to different genera. It is altogether x:)robable tliat such
"will, at some future time be the condition of some race or races of men.*"
I am now disposed to regard the above as the method of production,
not only of generic but of all other, including specific characters. It
would appear that by excessive acceleration or retardation, some of the

4 1

characters of a series may be skipped, but observations are not conclusive
on this point, since very close examination is necessary for the apj^recia-
tion of very transitory embryonic conditions.

\

ir. ON THE LAW OF REPETITIVE ADUITIOJs.

The origin of new structures which distingui.sh one generation from
those which have preceded it, I have stated to take place under the law of
acceleration. As growth (creation) of parts usually ceases with maturity,
it is entirely plain that the process of acceleration is limited to the period
of infancy and youth in all animals. It is also i)lain that the question of
growth is one of nutrition, or of the construction of organs and tissues
out of protoplasm.

The construction of the animal types may be referred to two kinds of
increase — the addition of identical segments and the addition of identical
cells. The first is probably to be referred to the last, but tlie laws which
give rise to it canuot now be explained. Certain it is that segmentation
is not only produced by addition of identical parts, but also by subdivision
of a homogeneous j^art. In reducing the vertebrate or most complex ani-
mal to its simplest , expression, we find that all its specialized parts are
but modifications of the segment, either simply or as sub-segments of
compound but identical segments. Gegenbaur has pointed out that the
most complex limb with hand or foot, is constructed, first, of a single
lon^ntudinal series of identical segments, from each of which a similar
segment diverges, the whole forming parallel series, not only in the ob-
lique transverse, but generally in the longitudinal sense. Thus, the limb
of the Lepidosiren represents the simple type, that of the Ichthyosaurus a
modification. In the latter, the first segment only (femur or humerus) is
specialized, the other pieces being undistinguishable. In the Plesiosaur-
ian paddle the separate parts are distinguished; the ulna and radius well
marked, the carpal pieces hexagonal, the phalanges defined, etc.

As regards the whole skeleton the same position may be safely as-
sumed. Though Tluxley nuiy reject Owen's theory of the vetebrate chai^-

*The preceding' section is merely an abbreviation with new illustrations, ol" the pro.
positions brougijl forward in the writers " Orii;in of Genera," 1868, w^here a considera-
ble extension of the subject will be found.

Cope. I

236

[Dec. 15,

I

acter of the segments of the brain case, because tbey are so very different;
from tbe segments in otber parts of tbe column, the question rests en-
tirely on tbe definition of a vertebra. If a vertebra be a segment of the
skeleton, of course tbe brain case is composed of vertebm:); if not, then the
■cranium may be said to be formed of ^'sclerotomes," or some otber name
may be used. Certain it is, however, that tbe parts of the segments of
tbe cranium may be now more or less completely parallelised or homolo-
^ised with each other, and that as we descend tbe scale of vertebrated
:animals, the resemblance of these segments to vertebra; increases, and tbe
-constituent segments of each become more similar. In the types Amphi-
-oxus, etc., where tbe greatest resemblance is seen, segmentation of either
is incomplete, for tbey retain the original cartilaginous basis. Other ani-
mals which present cavities or parts of a solid support are still more
-easily reduced to a simple basis of segments, arranged either longitudin-
.-ally (worm) or ccntrifugally (star-lisb, etc.)

DEFINITIONS.

a The succession of construction of parts of a complex, was originally
:a succession of identical repetitions ; and grade influence merely deter-
mined the number and location of such repetitions.

ji Acceleration signifies addition to tbe number of those repetitions
■<luring the period preceding maturity, as compared with tbe preceding
■generation, and retardation signifies a reduction of tbe numbers of such
repetitions during tbe same time.

Y The successive additions now^ characterizing the growth of tbe
liigbest animals are not exact repetitions of segments at this time, be-
•causc of influences brought to bear on cell nutrition during long periods.
Tiie nature of those infiucnccs is made the subject of another section.

In the endeavor to prove these positions, I will produce evidence, first,
,that some simpler animals grow according to tbe principle of modified
repetitive addition, and that traces of it are to bo observed in tbe most
^complex ; second, that every addition to strncture which has resulted in
the complexity of tbe higher animals, was originally a repetition of a pre-

■^existent structure.

Detailed explanations of tbe law of repetitive addition arc attempted
in the following pages, under two heads, segment repetition, and cell re-
petition.

A. On Segment RErETiTioN.

This is everywhere seen in tbe construction of animals and plants
Double bihiteral symmetry may serve as one example of repetition in

.growth.

a Bilateral symmetry. Anatomists have little difficulty in determin-
Ing tbe bilateral symmetry in most animals ; that is, the homologies of
the parts on opposite sides of the median line. It might be almost as-
serted that it was a necessity of organization, but when we observe tbe
growth of many plants, we are undeceived. And though l)ilateral symmetry
in the Cwlenieraia Q.nd many Articidata is perfect, yet in higher animals it

1871. J

237

[Cope,,

I

is more or less departed from. In the Yertcbrata the Amphioxus is
almost completely bilaterally symmetrical. In the fishes, tlie digestive
system is the only one which does not conform to it ; while in the birds
the reproductive system is atrophied on one side. In the seri)ents the
respiratory and part of the circulatory are similarly modified; and in the
mammalia the digestive and circulatory systems have both become nn-
symuictrieal ; and the cranium even in the cetacea.

If evolution be true, the unsymmetrical forms have descended from the
symmetrical, and the asymmetry being thus not inherited, is the result
of laws which have interfered with the original tendency to bilateral
repetition.

Many cases of bilaterally symmetrical diseases have been enumer-
ated by physiologists, and I will select as an example oiie which has come
under my observation. They were those of two boys who had had that
disease involving the mucodermal system called Yaricella, wliile the crowns
of the successional incisor teeth w^ere still enclosed in the mucous capsules
of the alveolar walls. The deposit of phosphate of lime forming their
surfaces was interrupted by the disease of the tissue, and the result was
a surface pitted, or sculptured intaglio fashion. The sculpture of the
two incisors of the right side was precisely imitated by those of the
left in reversed order, even in minute details, which were numerous, thus-
producing a result not displeasing to the eye. This has been observed on
two distinct occasions some years apart.

Another interesting example of bilaterally symmetrical disease, is re--
corded in a x>3,per on "a case of uuivcrsal hyperostosis, etc.," by Drs.
Mears, Keen, Allen and Pepper. * They describe the skeleton of a boy
of fourteen which displayed au cxtraordinarly exostoscd condition, the
bones themselves remaining in the condition known as osteoporosis.
They describe the uniform repetition of the abnormal growths of one-
side on the other in the following language, (p. 22).

" Comparing the two sides externall^^, not only is there no difference
in the extent and character of the disease, but there is the most remark- ■
able symmetry of the corresponding diseased bones, which may be traced
even into details. The disease begins and ends on both sides at corres-
ponding points, it changes in character from simple porosity to the
growth of osteophytes at corresponding points ; if, on one side, the pos-
terior part of the bone is most diseased, the same is true of the other
side ; if the osteophyte growth is continuous or interrupted on one bone
(fibula fig. 18), it is so on the opposite one ; if one is unusually diseased,
at a tendinous or aponeurotic insertion, so is its mate ; if a groove or a
variation in color exist on the one side, the same will be fotmd on the
other side ; even of single marked spieuhe of bone the same may be said,
so that a description of one side will answer for both, minute differences
being noted as they occur."

b. Antero-pOvSterior symmetry.

That this is an absolute law of creation will be less readily admitted

*See Proceed. Auier. Piiilos. Soc. ISTO. p. 19.

I

i

€ope. ]

238

!<il'

lii

I

[Deo. 15.

than ill the case of double bilateral symmetry, siucc the exceptions appear
to be so universal. Kovertheless, I believe it to be as much a part of the
law of Repetitive nutrition as the other. The autero-posterior homolo-
gies even of the human skeleton have been largely demonstrated, but as
■usual, we must appeal to the lower forms for a clear view of it. In the
rudimental skeletal axis we find such symmetry almost perfect in the
AmpJdoxuH, but in no other vertebrate. In limbs we have it clearly in-
dicated in the Ueptihan order IcUhyopterygia, and in the Piscine order
Dipnoi, where the anterior and posterior are scarcely or not all distin-
guishable. In the scapular and pelvic arches we And it also approximated
in the first-named orders.

In the nervous system it also exists approximately in the AmpMoxus.
It is not seen in any vertebrate, and in but few other animals, in the di-
gestive system, but it appears to exist in some lower articulata in both
■the respii-a,tory and circulatory systems.

r

c. As dlustrations of exact repetition involving large portions of the
organism the higher Polyps may be cited, which differ from , the lower
chielly by the addition of similar septa and similar tentacles. Examples
of repetition of nearly the whole organism, may be found in many Entozoa
as Taenia, where the cephalic segment only differs from the others, the
remainder or proglottides being alike. The most entire repetition of
-structure is seen in Vibrio, where the segments are all alike, there beino-
none representing a head. . ^

r

d. As an example in special details of structure, the segments of the low-
est brain (tliat of the lamprey) are repetitions of the first one. The
pelvic arch of IclUhyosaurus when first created, was a repetition of
the scapular, and the hind limb, of the fore limb. The segments of
the limbs of the Dipnoi ai'e mere repetitions, the later created of the
«arher. The special parts of the pes and manus of Ichthyomurus ?^vg
simply repetitive efforts of growth-force joined with a diminishing
amount. The addition of a digit often distinguishing one genus of Sala-
ma,nders or Saurians from another, is evidence of a similar repetitive
effort. The low mammal Oo-rntliorhyncJms, possesses but a single tooth
in each jaw; the simple teeth of armadillos and cetaceans, increasing as
they have done from a single commencement as in the monofcreme cited,
present examples of repetitive acceleration of growth force.

e. Complicationof a single element of repetition is accomplished appar^
ently by a double repetition. This is best understood by the consider-
ation of the transition from simple to complex teeth. In the cetaceans
this occurs in the Squalodonts ; the cylindric incisors arc followed by
flattened ones, then by others grooved on the fang, and then by two
rooted, but never double-crowned teeth. This is the result of antero-
posterior repetitive acceleration of the simple cyhndric dental type of the
ordinary toothed cetacean.

-_-^ ' "*^T|f^-^i^l^^^_, _

^""^'^--"^- r:\udti

1871.] '*^^'-'

[Cope.

Another mode of dental complication is by lateral repetition. Tiiu:^,
the heel of the sectorial tooth of a Carnivore is supported by a fang along-
side of the usual posterior support of a premolar, and is the result of a
repetitive effort of growth force in a transverse direction. More complex
teeth, as tlie tubercular molars, merely exhibit an additional lateral repe-
tition, and sometimes additional longitudinal ones. As is well known, the
four tubercles of the human molar commence as similar separate knobs
on the dental papilla.

The above are cited as examples to explain the meaning of the propo-
sition. When fuller demonstration is desired a greater number might be
given.

B. On Cell Repetitioi^.

That each additional act of creation in growth was originally identical
with one which preceded it, and therefore an exact repetUion, in its char-
acter and results, is proven by the following considerations.

It has been already determirjed by the study of homologies that all
organs and " parts of an organism can be referred to an original simple
archetype.

The question then remains as to whether the first element or lowest
term, of a given organized part is essentially a new structure, or whether
it be a repetition of some previously existing one. It may be asserted
that the simplest expressions which shall cover all organs, nre the solid
segments and the hollow sack and tube. For example, we have already
noted that the ultimate element of the limb is the first segment of the sin-
gle ray of Lepidosireu. Is this short cartihxginous cylinder (which probably
rej^resents the fore-limb of some undiscovered member of the Dipnoi), a
result of the repetition of a pre-existent structural element? This is no
doubt the case, for as will be shown beyond, cartilage, though the least cel-
lular of all the tissues is formed originally by cell-repetition or division.
Again, the ultimate lobules of the most complex gland are but repetitions
of the diverticula of the simply branched, and each of the hitter repetitious
of the simple cul-de-sac, whiclihasits origin in a convexity of an original-
ly plane surface. This convexity is again the result of repetition of cells
or cell-division, whereby their number is increased and the surface ren-
dered convex.

We are thus in both the solid segment, and hollow sack, brought down
to cell repetition. Thus it is with organs, as with entire animals, in which,
following the line of simplification, we reach at last forms composed of
cells only, [Actinopliry^, e. g.) and then the unicellular, {Aiwnha).

If this be the origin of organs, the question whether repetitive growth
has constructed tissues, remains for consideration.

In growtli, each segment—and this term includes the j)arts of a com-
plcx whole or parts always uudivided, (as the jaw of a whale or the sac-
body of a mollusk) — is constructed, as is well known, by cell division. In
the growing fo3tus the first cell divides its nucleus and then its whole out-
line, and this pj-(X!ess repeated millions of times produces, according to

777" TT7*1W'Piti7Sa»«ff»1«*atdiiUKiA+rfAiJ*LT>>±yj»:*^5s5iifjiii^^ ~ ;"'^'TT7^^?7'^T11?^^i.a3Ji7?nJvt*JhiiSri+iiMi%Ki*<ilfifiiiSit^^

^JV^L^^L^^J'XHi tl^xJi^.xA«u--^^r. btwi—l .u -- _

^-:S

\i

1^

11

Cope. ]

240

[Dec. 15,.

the cell theory, all the tissues of the animal organism or their bases, from..
first to last. That the ultimate or histological elements of all orj^ans are
produced ori<^inally by I'epetitive growth of simple nucleated cells, with
various modifications of exactitude of repetition in the more complex, is
taught by the cell theory. The formation of some of the tissues is as
follows:

.First Change — Formation of simple nucleated cells fi-om homogeneous-
protoplasm or the cytohlastenia.

Hecond — Formation of new cells by division of nucleus and body of the
old.

Third — Formation of tissues by multiplication of cells with or without
addition of intercellular cytoblastema.

A. In connective tissue, by slight alteration of cells and additionof cyto-
blastema.

B. In blood, by addition of fluid cytoblastema (fibrin) to free cells
(lymph corpuscles), which in higher animals (vertebrates) develop into
blood-corpuscles by loss of membrane, and by cell development of nucleus.

G, In muscles, by simple confluence of cells end to end, and mingling
of contents (Tvolliker).

I). Of cartilage, by formation of cells in cytoblast which break up,
their contents being added to cytoblast; this occuring several times, the
result being an extensive cytoblast with few and small cells (Vogt).
The process is here an attempt at development with only partial success,
the result being a tissue of sinall vitality.

Even in repair-nutrition recourse is had to the nucleated cell. For
Cohnheim first showed that if the cornea of a frog's eye be scarified, re-
pair is immediately set on foot by the transportation thither of white or
lymph or nucleated corpuscles from the neighboring lymph heart. This
he ascertained by introducing aniline dye into the latter. Repeated ex-
periments have shown that this is the history in great part of the con-
struction of new tissue in the adult man.

Now, it is well known th;i,t the circulating fluid of the footus contains
for a period only these nucleated cells as corpuscles, and that tlie lower
vertebrates have a greater proportion of these corpuscles than the higher,

■whence j^robably the greater facility for repair or reconstruction of lost
limbs or parts enjoyed by them. The invertebrates possess only nucleated
blood corpuscles.

C. Synthesis of Repetition.

That growth force is capable of exhibiting great complexity of move-
ment with increase in amount, will now be shown. That this quality
of complication is one of its distinguishing features will appear plain.

The simplest forms of life, as stated by Haickel, are simply homogene-
ous drops of protoplasm {Frotainoeha). These only grow by ordinary ac-
cretion, and display a form of self division or reproduction which is the
simplest possible; i. 6., the bisection of the mass by coutraction at op--
posite points.

1871.]

241

[(X>l)e.

The next grade of animal type is represented by the nucleated cell.
This is simple in Aino'ha, complex in Activnpliry^, etc. With such forms
as the latter, cell growth begins, and its development is accomplished by
cell division. This is simple repetition of ultimate parts. In tlie growth
of all higher types, we have nothing more tlian this, but folloM'ing a law
of complex repetition. Thus iu the growth of the parts of aix archetypal
vertebral column, or an archetyi^al limb, we have the repetition of cell
growth till the first segment is formed, when it ceases at that point, and
repeats the process again, forming another segment like the first; repeti-
tion within repetition. So with the construction of muscular tissue; first,
the nucleated cell repeated in a series, whoso adjacent walls disappear,
and whose cell contents flow together, thus forming a fibrilla; then a rep-
etition of the same process forming a second fibrilla; and so on to the
completion of thousands of them in fasciculi.

Let us then trace the series of repetitions and duplicated and still more
complex repetitions, seen in following uj^ annual forms from their arche-
types.

In the simplest repetition of cell growth in a longitudinal direction we
have Vibrio; in the centrifugal, ActinophryH. The former may be repre-
sented by a line of simple dots, thus :— Fig. 1.

/^

Z

• -*i

'v'

4. J

^.^

3 ,■^^^<^■yxi:^irYrpfoy^x;^^Yi)^^^^^

<f, .'' '','' s' r V »-■ >j^

I

5 .'-

\.y V •'..-

6 ^^^:yY^o-.y-(^^-y-Yrf^:^v-^^>./^^ ^^^^\

^. o oqOoo?

o oooOoc^Qcxi crx? o z/^-

4L'oocSB&S \S

oooooB>&&&^ y/Z

In a more
The same

In a complex repetition we rarely have the same degree of complication
in each repeated part. We have it centrifugally almost perfect in a Cce-
lentcrate (Acti/iia) and linearly in some of the lower Entozoa. An arche-
type of the latter kind might bo represented thus : — Fig. 2.
complex form, as of the proglottides of Tcenia, thus :■— Fig. 3.
3"iught represent an arclietypal vertebrate.

If now we attempt to express the complication of an organ by modified
3'epetition of once identical parts, the history of extremities will serve us.
Thus the limb of Let)idosircn which is composed of identical segments
may be thus represented :— Fig. 2. Each longitudinal segment of the
limb of Ichtliyosaurus may be similarly represented with a modification,
in size only, of the proximal or humerus; thus :--Fig. 4. But in Plesio-

A. V. S.— VOL. xii~2e.

E-s

r*i.i^^:j

Oopc]

242

[Dec. 1

5,

ilj

li

sauruSy an important series of changes of shape (but not in complexity)
appears, which may be represented thus :— Fig. 5 ; the first being hu-
merus, second ulna, third and fourth carpals (tarsals) the last phalanges,

which are first specialized in this genus.

By far the most usual modification is liowever complication by dupli-
cated and triplicated and still more highly multiplied repetition in some
segments of the a^rchetypc, and its omission in other segments. Thus in
in the TcBuia, the cephalic segments are much modified, and the nature
of its repetitions might be thus expressed :— Fig. G ; the simpler segments
representing the body segment, the two complex, representing these of
the head. In each, it will be observed, the complication is represented
by loops of similar form, and each loop of dots which represent the cells

in the first linear (fig. 1) arrangement.

A somewhat similar figure might represent the nature of the complica-
tion in the Myriapod. In the insect the additional complications of the
thoracic scij^ments would alter the diagram near the middle.

In the vertebrate cranium, a somewhat similar diagram might be used,
except that the modification of the segments or vertebrae, as compared with
the segments of the vertebral column, is not by repetition with modifica-
tion of the parts of each segment, but rather by modification of the
forms of the parts of the segments. The basi- cranial segments thus com-
pare with the dorsal vertebrae as the segments of the limb of Plesiosaurus
do to those of Icht/iyosatirus,

The above considerations have reference to repetition of parts in a
linear direction. Centrifugal repetition is seen in the addition of cham-
bers to the heart, by the subdivision in the earliest stages into auricle and
ventricle in the linear direction, considered in connection with the earlier
division of each in the transverse direction, by the growth of x>artitions.
This mode of repetitive addition is not readily represented by diagram.

A good example of repetitive addition in both linear and transverse
direction, may be found in the successive c(nnplication of tooth structure
seen in mammaha. In the dolphin, the dental series may be repre-
sented thus:— Fig. 7; in the squalodon thus:— Fig. 8; in the cat:— Fig. 9;
in the dog: — Fig. 10 ; in man : — Fig. 11 ; in some insectivora : — Fig. 12.

The circles represented here, are each a simple cusp.

In conclusion, the directions of Repetitive growth may be tabulated as
follows : The types to the left represent the original ; to the right, the
derivative.

r More bilaterally 1 ^^. ^.jiateral.
symmetrical. j -^

I

f Longitudin'lantero-pos- ]
terior and bilateral.

Centrifugal

-i

Centrifugal.

More antero-pos- J Only antcrO'
^ tcriorly. j posterior.

In plane.

Tu globe.

1871.]

243

[Cope.

D. On GiiowTii FoKCE.

From sucli examples as those that precede, but more especially from
the lastj it seems necessary to believe that there resides in organ-
ized matter, and in its most unniodiiied representative, the nncleated
cell, an affection which displays itself in repetition. This plienomenon
reduced to its lowest terms, may mean cell-division only, but the proof
is only clear in cases of growth proper. This affection disi)lays itself in
very slow or more rapid repetitions, — cell-division in growth ocenrring
rapidly, while its recnrreuces at rutting seasons in tlie development of
horns, feathers, etc., are separated by long intervals of time. In accele-
ration these repetitions occur with increased rapidity, i.e., in the adding
of more structures daring the same growth periods, while in low types

its repetitions are few and therefore slow.

What is the relation of cell division to the forces of nature, and to
which of them as a cause is it to be referred, if to any? The animal or-
ganism transfers solar heat and the chemism of the food (pi'otoplasm)
to correlated amounts of heat, motion, electricity, light (phosphores_
ccnce), and nerve force. But cell-division 'is an affection of protoplasm
distinct from any of these ; although addition to homogeneous lumps or
parts of protoplasm (as in that lowest animal, Protamoiha of Hfcekel,)
should prove to bo an exhibition of mere molecular force, or attraction,
cell-division is certainly something distinct. It looks like an exhi-
bition of another force, which may be called groioih force. It is corre-
lated to the other forces, for its exhibitions cease unless the protoplasm
exhibiting it be fed.

Professor Henry pointed out many years ago that this must be the case,
basing his belief on the observed phejiomena of growth in the potato, and
in the egg. The starch of the potato weighs much more than the young
shoot of cellulose, etc., into wliich it has been converted by growth ac-
tivity, so that a portion of the substance of the tuber has evidently escaped
in some other direction. This is shown to be carbonic acid gas and water,
derivedfrom the slow combustion of the starch, whieli in thus runningdown
from the complex organic state, to tlicmore simple inorganic compounds,
evolves an amount of force precisely equal in amount to the chemical
force (or ehemism) requisite to bind together the elements in the more
complex substance.'^

Carpenter also states that in his opinion the growth of the Fungi is
produced by a force liberated by the retrograde metamorphosis of their
food, which is of an organic character, (z. e,, humus). This metamor-
phosis consists, as in the tuber, in the production of carbonic acid gas
and water, and a force equivalent to the ehemism which had bound them
in the former complex union. f But in higher forms of vegetable life and
in growth that follows germination, the plant must appropriate carbon
from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. The decomposition of the

* Agiicultural Keport of the Patent Offlce. 1857.

t CoiTcliitiou uTl'liysiual ana Vital Forces, i^Gi, ^.^luivterly Journal of Science.) ,

Cope.]

244

[Dec. ]o,

■hi

binary compound (which sets free its oxygen) liberates the chemical force
which had previously maintained the compound, (or an equivalent force)
which Henry )-egards as furnishing the growth force, which produces the
plant. Carpenter derives but a portion of the force in this way, obtain-
ing the greater part from the heat of the sun. To this source also he
looks for the (jrowth force employed in the construction of cold-blooded
animals; while in warm-blooded animals, the retrograde metamorphosis
or running down of the material (protoplasm) of the food, furnishes a
requisite amount of heat. Whether growth force bo derived from tlie
chemism set free, direct, or tiirough the mediation of heat, by conver-
sion, among higher animals, is a question yet unsolved.

Growth force we may then regard as potential in organized tissue, and
as energetic during growth. Our present knowledge only permits us to
believe that other force is only converted into it under the influence of
pre-existent life, but of the real cause of this conversion we are as igno-
rant as in the case of the ])hysical forces.

In the animal organism, different tissues display different degrees of
**vitahty." The most vital display cell-organization and its derivative
forms, while the least so, approach nearer to liomogencity. As organized
tissue is the machine for converting vital forces, we may believe thatless
growth force is potential in cartilage than in muscle, foi^ it is formed by a
retrogradfl process, by which cells once formed are mostly burst, and the
contents form the intercellular, nearly structureless mass characteristic of
this tissue. Growth force must be here liberated in some other form,
perhaps heat, to be again converted to other use.

The higher vitality we may believe to result from the greater perfection
of the more complex machim as a force converter, as compared with the
inefficiency of the more simple.

E. O^ a^HE Direction op RErsTiTiON.

It has been already pointed out that groicth force exhibits itself in cell or
segment repetition. The forms in which it thus displays itself may be
brielly considered. The approximate cause is treated of in the next
chapter; but enough may be shown here to indicate that duplication and
complex duplication is the law of growth force, and that therefore this"
process must always follow an increase in amount in any given locality.

The size of a part is then dependent on the amount of cell-division or ■
growth force, which has given it origin, and the number and shape of ■
segments is due to the same cause. TJie whole question, then, of the cre-
ation of animal and vegetable types is reduced to one of the amount and
location of groiotli force,

Kepetition is of two kinds, centrifiigctl and longilndinaL As an exam-
ple of the former, the genus Actinoph^js has been cited, where the animal
is c6'Tnposed of cells arranged equidistahy around a common centre. The
arrangement in this type may be discoidal or globular, providing no defi-
nite axis be discoverable. As an example of longitudinal repetition,
Vibrio, and numerous cellular plants may bo cited where the arrangement
is in a single line.

.^u^

■;.1- r.itf"^! ■ -^i i-i^-r r.iTj. ■iihi^-.J.ia^

-ii^iii

.OX"^^ " "

■i^fiiiittdH

1871.]

245

[Cope.

In by far the greater number of animals these kinds of repetitive struc-
ture coexist. The longitudinal is however predominant in the Yertehrata,
Mollusca and Articulata, -while the centrifugal is greatly developed in Ihe
CcBlenterata and Radiata. In none but the simplest forms, are either of
these modes to be fouud alone.

The centrifugcd repetition oi- addition, more nearly resembles tlie mode
of aggregation of atoms in inorganic or crystalline bodies, and hence may
be regarded as the inferior manifestation. It implies that growth force
in this case conforms to a law of polarity in exhibiting itself at equal dis-
tances from a centrCj— which is allied to ordinary moleoulax' force, and in-
dependent of the localizing iniluences of which higher organisms seem
capable. In centrifugal animals, thcuj the latter evidently plays an in-
ferior part. In Coolenterates and Radiates, however, the body possesses a
short longitudinal axis, in some [Asterias] very short, in others {lIolothLi-
ria)^ more elongate. The amount of complication of centrifugal growth
greatly exceeds the complication in a longitudinal direction in all of
these animals except the lloloiliurida.

It is now important to observe that great numbers of centrifugal ani-
mals are sedentary or sessile; Avhile the longitudinal are vagrant, moving
from place to place. Many of the centrifugal animals which wandci-, do
not do so in in the direction of their axis, but sideways (Medusm). It is
also proper to notice that not only the movements of the muscleSj but also
the direction taken by the food is in the long axis. It is therefore to be con-
cluded that in longitudinnl animals growth force has assumed a more truly
animal type, and that this tendency has predominated over the polar or
molecular tendency.

In most longitudinal animals, however, certain lateral portions, limbs,

etc., extend on each wide of the axis; and were the space marked by their

extremities, and those of the axis, filled, wo would have the outline of a
centrifugal animal.

Before discussing the influences which have increased and locatefi
growth force, it will be necessary to point out the mode in which these
iniluences must necessarily have effected growth. Acceleration is only
possible during the period of growth in animals, and during that time
most of them are removed from the influence of physical or biological
causes, either through their hidden lives or incapacity for the energetic
performaiice of life functions. These influences must, then, have opeia-
ted on the parents, and become energetic in the growing foetus of the
next generation. However little we may understand this mysterious
process, it is nevertheless a fact. Says Murphy, "There is no act which
may not become habitual, and there is no habit that may not be inher-
ited." Materialized, this may be rendered— there is no act which does
not direct growth force, and therefore there is no determination of growth
force which may not become habitual; there is, then, no luibitual deter-
mination of growth force which may not be inherited ; and, of course, in
a growing footns becomes at once euei-getic in the ])roductiou uf new
structure in the direction inherited, which is acceleration.

1 1^-. -

-rT^—^rTr—r'—^-TijwT:^

M^'n-j-" .

rL^^^

I

III

M

Cope.]

246

[Dec. 15,

Butif tho forces converted into growth force are derived from without
the animal organism, whence and what the agency hy which the acceler-
ation or retardation of the hxtter is inherited from the i)arent? A few
suggestions only on this head can be made in the fourth section.

III. THE LAW OF USE AND EPPORT.

"Up to this point we have followed paths more or less distinctly traced
in the held of nature. The positions taken appear to me either to have
been demonstrated or to have a great balance of probability in their
favor. In the closing part of this paper I shall indulge in more of hy-

potliesis than heretofore.

Since repetitive addition only produces identical results in archetypes,
and each effort produces results more and more unlike its predecessor as
structure becomes specialized ; it becomes important to examine into
the inlluences which have originally modified the repetitive efforts suc-
cessively, producing structures more or less dilferent in detail in the sec-
ond generation frojn those of tho parents, in acceleration, or the reverse,

in retardation.

Going further back, the question arises, why a simple exhibition of
repetition {e. g., cell division) should be converted into a complex or du^
pUcated repetition (e, g., jointed ray). This it has already been stated, is
one consequence of increased amount of the growth force.

AVe then seek explanation of the main question, as to what determines
the location of this additional or new growth Ibrce. (Div. A.)

Lastly, why the total amount of this force should change in a given
individual or part of au individual. (Div. B.)

A. On the Location of Giiowrn Fokce.

What are the inlluences locating growth force ? The only efficient ones
with which we arc acquainted, are, first, physical and chemical causes;
second, use; and I would add a third, viz: effort. I leave the first, as not
especially prominent in the economy of type growth among animals, and
confine myself to the two following. TJie effects of use are well known.
We cannot use a muscle without increasing its bulk; we cannot long use
the teeth in mastication without inducing a renewed deposit of dentine
within the pulp-cavity to meet the encioachments of attrition. The
hands of the laborer are always larger th;ui those of men of other pur-
suits. Pathology furnisiies us with a host of hypertrophies, exostoses,
etc., produced by excessive use, or necessity for increased means of per-
forming excessive work. The tendency, then, induced by use in the
parent, is to add segments or cells to tho organ used. Use thus determines
the locality of new repetitions of parts already existing, and determines
an increase of growth force at the same time, by the increase of food al-
ways accomi^anying increase of work done, in every animal.

But supposing there be no part or organ to use. Such must have been
the condition of eveiy animal prior to the appearance of an additional
digit or hmb or other useful element. It appears to me that the cause of
the determination of growth force is not merely the irritation of the part

li

V

1871.]

247

[Cope.

or organ used by contact with the objects of its use. This would seem
to be the remote cause of the deposit of dentine in tlie used tooth; in the
thickening epidermis of the hand of tlie laborer; in the wandering of the
lymph-cells to the scarified cornea of the frog in Cohnheim^s experiment.
You cannot rub the sclerotica of the eye without producing an expansion
of the capillary arteries and corresponding increase in the amount of nu-
tritive fluid. But the case may be different in the muscles and other
organs (as the pigment cells of reptiles and flshes) which are under the
control of the volition oi: the animal. Here, and in many other instances
which might be cited, it cannot be asserted that the nutrition of use is
notundeAhe dircrl control of the will through the mediation of nerve
force. Thei-efore I am disposed to believe tbat growth force may be,
through the motive force of the animal, as readily determined to a lo-
cality where an executive organ docs not exist, as to the first segment or
cell of such an organ already commenced, and that therefore effort is, m
the order of tune, the first factor in acceleration.

AddtUon and subtraction of growth force in accordance with the modes
pointed out below, account for the existence of many characters which

are not adaptive in their nature,

Acceleration under the intluence of effort accounts for the existence
of rudiments of organs in process of development, while rudiments of
organs in process of extinction are results of retardation, occasioned by
absolute or complementary loss of growth force. Many other characters
will follow, at a distance, the modifications resulting from the operation
of these law\s.

Examples of the Influence of Physical Causes.

This is nowhere better seen than in the case of coloration, which re-
quires the liji-ht of the sun for its production. The most striking ex-
amples of this are seen in the colorless surface of animnls inhabiting the
recesses of caves, as the blind craw-fi^h and the Amblpopsis, etc. If evo-
lution be true, these have descended I'roni more higidy colored pro-
genitors. The flat fishes, also {PlevronecHdai) as is known, swim on one
side in adult age, hut many of them are hatched symmetric:^! hshes, or
nearly so, one eye rotating from one side to the other by a twisting of the
cranial bones. It is thus probable that they have descended from sym-
metrical fishes, which were similarly colored on both sides. Now, the
lower side is colorless, the upper retaining often brilliant hues. Tlie in-
fluence of sunlight is thus as distinctly discoverable among animals as
among plants, where it has been generally accepted as a principal of veg-
etable physiology.'*

Examples of the Effects of Effokt and Use.

a The EespinUori/ and Oirculaiori/ Si/Hem of Vertebrates. It is weU
known that the succession of classes of Vertebrates is measured first by

*In Uiirf and similar cases, care must be talicn not to misunderstand the writer by supposing
liiiu to mean that in each generatUm i^eparaieh/ tlie peculiar coloration is tlie result of ehanged ex-
.posure to liglU. 'J'lie evolutionist will nnderstand_that the etVect of sueh influence increases with
succeeding generations by the addition to inho.rite'd cliaracter, of the cflect of immediate external
cause.

1

■sir ™_>

I

'?!*■■ P

^f, -£ *>

1

f ^Ji^^

E^

wtV-

'^'^^-

Cope.]

2-i8

[Dec. 15,

tlicir adaptation to aeration in \Yatcrj and then by their successive de-
partures from this type in connection with the faculty of breathing air.
Tlie same succession of structure is traversed by the embryos of the ver-
tebrates, the number of stages passed bcinp^ measured by the final status
of the adult. This transition takes place in the Batrachia later in devel-
opment than in any other class. Now, it is well known that the trausi-
tion or metamorphosis may bs delayed or encduraged by suppression of
use of the branchial and encouragement of use of the pulmonary organs

or the reverse.

The aquatic respiration of tadpoles may be indefinitely prolonged by
preventing their access to the surface, and it is known that in nature tlie
size or age of the larva at time of metamorphosis may vary mucU in the
same species. If perennibranchiates {Siren e. g.) are deprived of tlieir
branchiae, they will aerate blood by the lungs exclusively, and there is no
reason to doubt that by use of these, and disuse of the branchitt;, aerial
respiration might become the habit of the animal. It is also easy to per-
ceive that geologic changes would bring about a necessity for precisely
this change of habit. This occurred in tlie period of the coal measures,
■where large fresh water areas were desiccated, and it was precisely at this
period that many air breathing Batrachians originated and had a great
development.

S

The rattle of the Rattlesnake.

Nearly all of the larger harmless snakes which live on the ground have a
liabitof throwing the end of the tail intoviolent vibrations when alarmed or
excited, with the view of alarming a supposed enemy. Among Coroiielline
snakes, Opldbolas triangulus possesses it; among the water snakes, Tropi-
donotus sipedon. In the typical Colubrine group the bJack snake, Bascanhim
constrictor is an exa.mple; Pityoplds sayi also shakes the tail violently.
The copperliead {Ancistrodon coniortri'X) and the moccasin {A. piscicorus)
(fide Gilnther) have the liabit in a marked degree. Among the rattle-
snakes it is a means of both warning and defence, in connection with the
rattle which they carry.

In the structure of the end of the tail of harmless snakes, we see a
trace of the lirst button of the rattle in a horny cap that covers the ter-
minal vertebrai.

In the venomous genera, it is conspicuous in Lacheais especially, reach-
ing a considerable length and having a lateral groove. In the plate-
headed rattlesnakes [Grotalus) this corneous cap is inilated into a button
with lateral groove, and in some of them possesses only one or two but-
tons or joints. In the perfected rattlesnakes ( Caudisona) not only are the
segments numerous and iniiatcd, but a number of the terminal caudal
vertebrpc are greatly enlarged vertically, and coossified into a mass.^ This
is important from the fact that the rattlesnakes are the most specialized
of all snakes, standing at the head of the order, and as such, on the prin-
cipal of acceleration present the greatest amount of grade nntrition.

Now it appears to me, that the coiistant habit of violent vibration in a

*See good ligures of Uii;s structure hi Zcilsclir. f. Wisscnscli. Zoologie, VIII. Tab. i:^.

1871. j

249

[Cope.

part, tends to determine an increased amoiuit of nutritive fluid to it, in
other words to localize growth nutrition, and when this has attained com-
plex repetition or grade nutrition, to result in new grade structure. (The
Segments of the rattle being nearly all alike, it is a case of simple repeti-
tion.) This view appeal's to be as reasonable as that generally entertained
witli regard to the cause of spavin in the horse's leg. Here, owing to ex-
cessive use, exostoses appear on the bones surrounding the tibio-tarsal
articulation. As to the reason of the structure in question not appearing
in forms lower in the scale than the rattlesnake, it is explained below,
if the law of accumulation of grade nutrition be true, (See sec. B.)
This is, that repetition (or acceleration) is only possible where the animal
has a-n excess of growth force at its disposal, or can abstract it from some
portion which is unused or useless.

Y On horns. The possession of horns on the posterior part of the
cranium, as defenses against enemies is a character found in many dis-
tinct types of animals. (Herbivora have no (dental) weapons and need
horns). Itisseeninthe Batracliia 8terjoc6plutlah\t\xQe'K.t\nGtgQy^Vi^ Gerat&r-
peton ; among Amtra it is approached by TripHon and Uevid'plir actus.
Among Reptilia it is well marked in Phryiiosoma, a Lacertilian genus. In
Mammalia the Artiodactyla Buminantia are the horned animals of the order.
We have opportunities of observing the habits of these representatives
of the Frogs, the Lizards and the Mammals.

In the tirst case, any one who has kept ordinary toads and tree toads
in confinement, is aware that when attacked and unable to escape, they
defend themselves by presenting the top of the head forwards and using
it as a shield. Now I have already pointed out- that in both toads, tree
toads, and frogs, there are natural series of genera, measured by the de-
gree of ossification of the supei'ior cranial walls, the longest being that of
the Hjhdic, which embraces six terms, viz : Hylella^ Hyla, Scytopis, Omo-
f^ephalus, Trachycepkalus and Tnprioii. The two last have the head
thoroughly shielded, and Triprion has projecting angles which aippear in
some South American forms lately described by M. Espada, to be devel-
oped into short horns. That this excessive ossification is associated with

the habit of protecting the whole body with the front, seems likely.

In the case of Phrynofio'ina we know that precisely the same habit is as-
sociated with the presence of the sharp horns; and that some genera
'Without horns possess it also. Phrynosoma is an exceptionally sluggish
genus in a family of most active forms, and must necessarily resort to this
^lode of defence more than they.

In the case of Kuminants, we also know that defence is accomplished
yy throwing the head down with the horns thrown forwards. But this
^s not coniined to this grouj?. That generalized suborder, the Artiodactyla
^I'dinaria, represented by the hog, which were no doubt the genetic pre-
decessors of the Buminants in time, also throw the head down in defence
'^^ the same way, having thus a manner totally distinct from that seen in

"Origin of Genera, 1808, p. 14.

A. P. S.— VOL. XIX,

■3f.

m
i

I

/

Cope-l

250

[Dec. 15,

the Carniwra. The lal-ter show their teeth and often crouch preparatory
to a leap.

These cases present so constant an association between hahit and nse,
that admitting evolution, we are compelled to believe that the structure
has given rise to the habit or the habit to the structure. In the former
case, we have to suppose, with the author of natural selection, that among
the many spontaneous variations, rudimcntal horns occasionally appeared,
and that their possessors being thus favored in the struggle for existence,
were preserved and multiplied; while those not favored, dwindled and
were ultimately nearly all extirpated or starved. The question of origin
is here left to chance, and Alfred Bennett has made a mathematical estimate
of the chances of any particular profitable variation occurring among the
great number of possibilities of the case. This has shown the chance to
be so excessively small as to amount in most cases to a great improbability.

If we turn to the probabilities of such structure having arisen through
the selection of that mode of defence by the animal, we find them greatly
increased. The position occupied by the horns, in all the animals de-
scribed, is that which is at once brought into contact with an enemy in
conflict, and as sport among animals is a gentle imitation of conflict, the
part would be constantly excited in sport as well. With an excess of
growth nutrition, our knowledge of the effects of friction on the epider-
mis, and of excessive ligamentous strain and inflammation on bone
{e. g,, spavin in horses) as well as of abnormal exostoses in general, would
warrant us in the belief that the nse of the angles of the parts in ques-
tion in these animals, would result in a normal exostosis, of a simple
kind in the frogs, or as horn cores in the Ruminantia. As to the sheath-
ing of the cores in the Bo'cidoi^ and nakedness in the Cermdm, it is in
curious relation to their habitat and to their habits. The epidermis and
derm would of course share in the eflccts of friction. In the Bovida^
which dwefl iu treeless plains, or feed on the grasses in great part, the de-
velopment of these coverings of the horn cores into a horny sheath,
would naturally meet with no interruption. In the case of the deer,
which mostly live in forests or browse on trees, constant contact with the
latter would prevent the healthy growth of the dermal covering, and it
would be liable to injury or constant excoriation by the animals them-
selves on the branches of trees, etc. This we know to be the present
habit of the deer as regards the dermal covering of the horns. I have
elsewhere pointed out the similar connection between the dental structure
and habitat among the oxen and the deer. The former eating the harder
grasses, are provided against the consequent rapid attrition of the tooth,
by a prismatic form, which allows of more x)rolonged growth and more
rapid protrusion. The deer, in accordance with their foliage-eating
habits, do not wear the crown of the tooth with such rapidity. Long
continued protrusion is not so necessary, hence the teeth are more dis-
tinctly rooted and have a prominence or shoulder, distinguishing the
body of the crown.

1871. ]

251

[Cope.

B. Change in Amount of Gnowxn Fouce.

1. Absolute increase of Growth Force.— As every type has had its period
of greatest development in numbers, size, and complication of structure,
tlie present law indicates as an explanation, a culmination of the pro-
cess of conversion of growth force from its energetic to its potential state
in tissue. The cause is primarily the increased exercise of effort and
use, which while effecting a conversion, increases the capacity of the or-
gans by which further conversion is effected.

2. Local increase of GroictJi F(?rc^.— Examples of a local increase of this
kind are probably to be seen in convoluted organs ; as the convolutions

■ of the brain in higher Mammalia ; the convolutions of the enamel of the
Labyrinthodont Batrachia ; the same phenomenon in the cotyledons or
plumule of some seeds. In these cases the superficial area of the parts
is excessively developed, and the inclosing organs not being proportion-
ately enlarged, a convolution necessary follows. In the first case, the
skull ; in the second, the alveolus ; in the third case, the seed- envelope,
restrain the expanse of the contained part, which would otherwise follow
increase of growth force.

3. Absolute loss of GrowiJi Force.— This will follow defective nutrition,
produced by inability of the animal to obtain heat and food requisite
to that end. This is supposed to be due (according to the view hereafter
proposed) primarily to deficiency of intelligence, in failing to adapt habits
to changed physical circumstances, and secondarily to the unfavorable
influence of such changed circumstances. The extinction of highly
specialized types, which lias closed so many lines of animal types, will bo
accounted for by their less degree of plasticity and want of capacity for
change under such changed circumstances. Such changes consist of mo-
dified topography and temperature, with irruptions of many new lorms
of life by migration. The less developed, forms would be most likely to
experience modifi. .;'on of structure under a new order of things, and
paliBontology teaches that the predecessors of the characteristic types of
one period were of the less specialized forms of that which went before:

Thus is explained the fact that, in following out the line of succession
of animal forms we have constantly to retrace our steps from specialized
extremes, (as osseous fishes, tailless Batrachia, song birds, etc.), to more
generalized or simple forms,> in order to advance beyond.

4. 2 he complementary diminution of growth nutrition follows the excess
of the same in a new locality or organ, of necessity, if the whole amount
of which an animal is capable, be, as T believe, fixed. In this way are ex-
plained the cases of retardation of character seen in most higher types.
The discovery of truly complementary parts is a matter of nice observa-
tion and experiment. Perhaps the following cases may be correctly ex^

plained.

A complementary loss of growth force may be seen in absence of
superior incisor teeth and digits in ruminating Mammalia, where exces-
sive force is evidently expended in the development of horns, and com-

■- ^

v-.\

\i^^

1^

■■■^L

■4

Cope]

252

[Dec. 15,

plication of stomach and digestive organs. The excess devoted to the latter
region may account for the hack of teeth at its anterior orifice, the mouth ;
otherwise, tliere appears to be no reason why the ruminating anin\als
should not have the superior incisors as well developed as in the odd toed
( Perissodactyl) Ungulates, many of whicli graze and browse. The loss
to the osseous system in the sLd)traction of digits may be made up in the
development of horns and horn-cores, the horn sheath being perhaps the
complement of the lost hoofs. It is net proposed to assert that similar
parts or organs are necessarily and in all groups complementary to each
other. The horse has the bones of the feet still further reduced than the
ox, and is nevertheless without horns. The expenditure of the comple-
mentary growth force may be sought elsewliere in this animal The lat-
eral digits of the Equidcb are successively retarded in their growth, their
reduction being marked in //«}9p^;://.mw??7, the last of the three-toed horses;
it is accompanied by an almost coincident acceleration in the growth
nutrition of the middle toe, which thus appears to be complementary to
them.

The superior incisors of the Ariiodaciyla disappear coincidentally with
the appearance of horns, which always exist in the toothless division of
the order, except in some very small antelopes (CepJialopJiuSj etc.) where
the whole amount of growth force is small. Possibly the superior inci-
sors and horns are comx^lcmentary here. The retardation in development
of the teeth in the higher apes and men, as compared with the lower apes
is coincident with the increase of number of brain convolutions. That
this is not necessarily coincident with reduction of teeth in other groups
is plainly proven by the rodents'^ and Chiromys where the loss of many
teeth is complementary to the great size of the incisors of the middle
pair. But in man there is no complementary increase of other teeth, and
the reduction is no doubt due to contraction of the jaws, which is com-
plementary to increase in other parts of the cranium, in both apes and
men.

I am confident that the origin and loss of many structures may be ac-
counted for in this way, and the correlation of parts to each other be
oneasured accurately.

Objection. The first one which arises is that which the author of the
Vestiges of Creation made against Lamarck's theory of a similar kind, ^. e.
that by assuming that effort, use and physical causes have originated modi-
fications of structure, we give the adaptive principle too much to
do. I have made the same objection to the theory of natural selec-
tion. It is true that an application to a j'urxjose is involved in the pres-
ent theory of the ''location of growth force;" but in point of fact, a large
number of non-adaptive characters are accounted for by it. These are
the rudimental and transitional ones which mark the successive steps
preliminary to the completion of an adaptive structure; second, those
produced by deficiency of growth force in less favored regions of the body,
and third and fourth, i)hcnomena conscfj^uent on general deficiency and ex-
ess of growth force.

y

*^^- -i^.

1871]

253

[Cope.

I

And it may be said in conclusion that if tlie tbrce principles, or if use
especially, should be found to be inadequate to the service bere demanded
of them, it may be at least said that tbey or tbe last named, constitute
the only controllers of growth force to any degree at all, -svith which we
are acquainted.

IV. ON GRADE INFLUENCE.

The object of the present section is the attempt to discuss how the in-
iluence of effort and use on the parent is placed in a position to be inher-
ited by the offspring.

A. Of the Nature of Grade Infliience,

In the iirst place, it is necessary to note the definition and character of

grade influence.

a. Growth force uninfluenced by grade influence sim])ly adds tissue

either {a) in enlarging size, or (?>) in replacing waste. It does this by re-
peating the cell, by division, in localities which have already assumed their
specific form. This form of growth force may persist throughout life, but

with diminished energy in age.

- y9. Grade influence directs growth force in building up the tissues into
organs, and constructs the parts of the body successively to completion,
the result expressing the type or grade of the animal or plant. Its
energy terminates with maturity, except in cases of periodical reproduc-
tion of sexual ornaments of the male (birds, deer), where it continues
throughout life, appearing at regular intervals.

But it has occurred in acceleration that instead of a simple repetition of
the ultimate histological element of an organit^m, in adding to its amount,
it adds a completely organized part of the structure, as a tube, a phalange,
a digit, a limli or an arch ; an ocellus or a tooth. For instance, in the
genus AmMystow,(i, one section possesses four phalanges on the longest
digit ; another section exhibits but three. In the species A. mavortium,
some individuals have the smafl number of phalanges, but the majority
possess the larger number. As all are of common parentage a whole pha-
lange has been lost or added. The explanation of this phenomenon is
essential to the comprehension of the origm of type structures.

■'•In plants, growth nutrition continues throughout life, but in the
higher plants it is more active during the earlier years in perennial
species, additions to size becoming less and less marked with increasing
age. Grade uutrition also persists throughout life, but is chiefly active
during a short period only of every year, or during flowering and fruit-
ing. Not only in the production of the reproductive organs, but also in
the yearly additions to other typical parts of the plant, grade-nutrition is

active.

**Iu animals, growth nutrition is more active in the early stages of
life, but is coutinaed throughout in the lower divisions ; in the highest,
it is also continued throughout life, but there is a greater contrast between
its results during youth, when nearly the whole size is attained, and dur-
ing age, where the additions are much loss.

ri -

. M

yj-- hrf Vi r.-

\

Copo.]

254

[Dec. 15.

■

Grade nutrition is, on the other hand, entirely confined to infancy and
youth, except in those low animals which produce their reproductive
organs periodically (some Entozoa, etc.), -where it may be said to be in
nearly the same condition as in plants.

Y While the amount of growth force, potential in adult living animals,
has varied very irregularly throughout the animal kingdom, there being
large and small, simple and complex, in every division, it would seem
to have accumulated on the whole, with the rising scale of animal types.
Thus the lower or Protozoa are the smallest ; Badiaies are next in size ;
MoUufiCS and Articulates reach nearly the same maximum, which exceeds
that of the Radiates, and falls far below that of the Yertehraies, Among
the last the mammalia have attained as large if not larger size than any of
the other orders {e. g., Cetacea). This is, however, not necessary to the

history of evolution.

That an increased amount of grade growth force has been constantly
rendered potential, during the advance of time is clear, if the preceding
inferences be true. It is also evident that some individuals have accu-
mulated it more rapidly than others, if all alike originated from the sim-
plest forms known to us. Multitudes have remained in the earliest
stages {Protozoa) of the whole series, or of their own special scries {Lin
gula), forming "persistent types;" or taken directions which rendered
them incapable of expansion beyond a certain point without exhaustion
or death ; for example, complicated types, as Ammonitidoi. The quadru-
manous animal which was the progenitor of man, may thus be believed
to have acquired a higher capacity of this accumulation than his cotem-

poraries.

Assuming the nucleated cell to be the ultimate element of organic

tissue, there are two types of life in which grade influence has not ap-
peared, viz. : unicellular animals and plants, and living forms composed
of homogeneous protoplasm. In the latter neither grade influence nor
animal growth force is potential ; in the former, simple growth force only.
It is therefore apparent that grade influence has been developed in the
organism itself; perhaps this may have been, in the plant, through the
modified influence of external physical causes ; in the animal, if our in-
ductions as to use and effort be true, under the influence of the activities
of the parent, which determined a structural change either in itself or in
its offspring. The possibilities of this origin are considered in the next

section,

^. The LorMion of Growth Force proceeds under the direction of what
Professor Henry calls "Vital influence." With this author I discard the
use of the term "Vital Force," what was originally understood by that
term being a comi)lex of distinct ideas. The Vital forces are (nerve force)
Neurism, (growth force) Bathmism, and (thought force) Phrenism/-^ All

*The objection of rresidenlBaniara Lo ihonglit being 'an exhibition of aforce. is thafthought
cannot be mcaf^ured." This objection does not talce into ipn-iilnvation the two-fold natuvo of
thought. The amovnt o'f thought can most assuredly be measured, the quality of the thought, in one
view of the case, cannot. That part which cannot be measured is that which detcrniincs i\\c Locx-
«wm of thought /crce, which, as in the case of growtti lorce, is an attribute of the \\ya\ ur other prlii-

ciplft, ,

.u.

1871.]

255

[Cope.

of these are supposed to he correlated to the Physical Forces, but are
under direction and control of the Vital principle which locates their
action, etc., just as molecular or atomic constitution determines the
locality and character of the physical forces. The laws of the vital prin-
ciple and of atomic constitufeion also determine the nature of the conver-
sion of one force into another. Kow, since pliysical and vital forces are
correlated and convertible, the close rehitionship of tlie two controlling
principles becomes obvious, and suggestive of tlieir Identity.

Dr. Cai-penter, in describing the correlation of physical and vital forces,
defines the difference of organic species to be similar to that prevailing
between different chemical bodies (the latter depending on different mo-
lecular and atomic constitution), which leads them ''iobeMve differently"
from eacli other under similar circumstances. This may be more fully
expressed by saying that different species possess diffei*ent capacities for
the location of the conversion of the physical forces into growth-force.
K "descent with modiilcations " contemplated by a process of evolution,
signifies a progressive change in this capacity. Acceleration means an
increase in this capacity ; retardation a diminution of it. Grade iniluence
means the influence which has produced this change of capacity.

Precisely what the change consists in is a mystery, but that it is mat-
erial in its character is rendered more i>robable the more we examine it.

B. The Origin of Grade Influence,

Living protoplasm can convert heat and nutriment into growth
force without the agency of the nervous system. This is proven by the
nutrition of the Protozoa and C(£lenterata and from experiments on the
muscles of frogs, etc. In the latter case, as is well known, the nerve may
be divided, and the muscle retain its size if a current of electricity be
passed through it, thus sustaining the nutrition. As the presence and
structure of the nervous system is in relation to the specialization of ani-
mal structure in other respects, it is very probable that the nervous system
is in Mglier animals the agent of the location of growth force. In the
lowest it is not effected by any such means. As the nervous system is
the instrument of the metaphysical peculiarities of the animal (emotions,
choice, etc.), we may conclude that in the lower animals, location of
growth force is influenced by necessity without choice; in the higher by

necessity with choice.

The impulses derived from the nervous system, it is knoAvn, may be
reflex or automatic in consequence of application of stimuli from without.
They may become so also, after having been originated consciously or by
effort of will. In the case of habits, frequent exercise of choice has so im-
pressed the nervous system as to result in its repetition of effort, often in

opposition to changed choice.

The influence of effort in muscular action on the nervous system ap-
pears to be, first, to enable it to convert heat to nerve force, and, then, to
conduct nerve force to the involuntary muscles or those controlling cir-
culation, where it is converted into motion, which thus controls nutri-

\'.

"^ ^

i'

i-

Wi\

^

■mi

ik

Cope. }

256

[Dec. 15,

tioii through circulation. The nervous system, like others, develops in
. capacity with use, hence probably nerve tissue converts heat into nerve
force as muscular tissue converts heat into motion. In other words, by
repetition, the capacity of the nervous system for this conversion of heat
is known to increase. As the amount of heat converted is in proportion
to the amount of appropriate nerve tissue (see above) it is evident that
use and effort increase the amount of nerve tissue.

The phenomena of thought render the same modification of structure
probable. E ffort in the direction of thought is supposed to convert heat
into tliought force. Inasmuch as the more intelligent animals possess the
highest development of cerebral hemispheres, it is highly probable that
brain substance converts heat into growth force also, which produces tissue
of its own kind precisely as muscle does.

As different parts of the nervous centres, subserve different purposes,
the development of these parts must proceed approximately under the
influence of special kinds of effort and use. Where, as in the adult, heat
is converted into growth force in the tissues to a very limited extent, if
the above principles be true, the conversion of heat by the nervous system
Into nerve growth force and tissue, is on the other hand, not terminated.
Ca])acity for effecting conversion of force is regarded, as above pointed
out, as dependent on moleciilar constitution. TTence we conclude that
change in that capacity on the part of the nervous system involves a mo-
lecular change in its constitution.

Kow, it is apparent that if the nervous centres possessed the enlarged
capacities for the conversion of heat into nerve force and thus of con-
stantly controlling the circulation in special directions, in a growing or
fcctal animal, tissue will be produced in tlie directioiis in question. For
the heat converted into motion in the adult is in the foistus in large part
converted into growth-force.

Now, we know physical and metaphysical peculiarities of parents to be
inherited by offspring, hence, no doubt, the nervous structure determina-
tive of growth force is inherited. This will then control the locahties of
special conversion of heat, etc., (from the mother) into growth force, in
accordance with the structure of the parent, and the more decidedly, as
its own increase progresses.

The resnltwill bo acceleration, or construction of tissues and organs in

excess of those of the parent, if the effort or use devoted to a nerve or

organ be represented in the nerve centre of the parent by a greater amount

of force-converting tissue, than is necessary when inherited in thefoitus

for the construction (by conversion), of tissues and organs like those of
the parent.

That this is a partial explanation of inheritance, is rendered probable
from the fact that, the types of structure presented by the nervous centres,
express the grade of the animals possessing them far more nearly than
those of any other organ or set of organs. If the brain, like other organs,
develops by inteihgent use, it cannot be doubted that this relation of its
development to grade is not accidental, but that grade structure ia an ex-
pression of its capacities, physical and mental

-^i

1S71.]

2aT

[Cope.

(7. On the Transm.mion of Grade Influence,

How force potential in nerve strucfcure is inherited tlirougli the repro-
ductive elements is a great mystery. The followincr considerations relate

to it.

t. Secre ion is known to be conducted thrDugh the conversion of heat
into growth force, probably through the intervention of nerve force.

3. In many secretions which possess strong chemical qualities, as gas-
tric juice, bile, sahva, etc., the fluid is formed by a destruction of the
cells representing the efforts of growth force, which is therefore no doubt
converted into chemism or chemical force.

3. In the spermatozooids, which are produced by a process of secre-
tion, the cells are not destroyed, and thus growth force remains potential ;
they exhibit however lively motions, ^vhich may represent motive
force derived from the nervous centre.

4. While in contact with the yolk of the ovum, so long as vitahty
lasts, the motion must be communicated to portions with wliich it is in
contact, or converted into one of the forces from which it was derived
(heat) or .into another force (growth force). The growth force potential
in the cell of the spermatozooid, on its destruction, becomes converted
into heat or other force. Thus may originate the growth force of the
ovum, which, once commenced, is continued tlirough tlie period of growth.
The process might be compared to the application of tire to a piece of
wood. Tiie force conversion is communicated to other material than that
first inilamed. The new fuel in the case of the embryo, is the pro-
toplasm derived from the mother.

T. ox IXTELLIGEKT SELECTIOK.

As neither use ncr effort can be ascribed to plants, and as we know
that their life history is much more dependent on their surrouudings,
than is that of animals, we naturally look to the physical and chemical
causes as having a prime influence in the origination of their type struc-
tures. Without greater familiarity with the subject, I will not attempt
to say how far the various degrees of growth force possessed by parent
plants, located under the influence of meteoric and other surroundings,
and preserved, destroyed or restricted by natural selection, may account
for the characters of their successors of the present period. But oHic'r
agencies similar to use, that is, automatic movements, may be also intro-
duced as an element in the argument. The movements of tendrils seek-
ing for support may be here considered, and as Dr. Asa Gray has pointed
out, have consequences similar to those of use in animals. When the ten-
dril seizes a support, growth force is located at the point of contact, for
the tendril increases considerably in thickness.

Among animals of the lowest grade, movement must be quite similar
to those of plants, or automatic from the start, and not even at the be-
ginning under the influence of will. Evidence of will is, however, soon
seen in the determinate movements of many of the Protozoa in the seiz-

%

\i

• '\

■\

, i;

.1-

%

■I

I.'

%

I >.

( ^

A. P. S. — YOL. XII.

Op

'■i

Cope. ]

258

[Dec. 15,

ing of food. AVith idUI necessarily appears a yoioer of choice, however
limited in its lowest exhibitions, by the lack of suggestive metaphysical
qualities, or the fewness of alternatives of action presented by surround-
ing circumstances, to animals of low and simple organism. We can,
however, believe that the presence of greater or less number of external
facilities for action, characterize different situations on the earth's sur-
face, as well as that greater and less metapliyslcal capacity for perceiving
and taking advantngo of them, must exist in different individuals of
evei'y species of animal, however low, which possesses consciousness and
wilL These qualities will, of course, influence effort and xise to the ad-
vantage of the animal, or the reverse.

Effort and use have very vai'iomj immediate stimuli to their exertion.

Use of a part by an animal is either compulsory or optional. In either
case, the use may be follow^ed by an increase of nutritioii under the influ-
ence of reflex action or of direct volition.

A compulsory use would naturally occur in new situations which take
place apart from the control of the animal, where no alternatives are pre-
sented. Such a case would arise in a submergence of land where land
animals might be imprisoned on an island or in sw^amps surrounded by
water, and compelled to assume a more or less aquatic life. Another case
which has also probably often occurred, would be when the enemies of a
species should so increase as to compel a lai'ge number of the latter to
combat who had previously escaped it.

In these cases, the structure produced would be necessarily adaptive.
But the effect would sometimes be to destroy or injure the animals (retard
them) thus brought into new situations and compelled to an additional
struggle for existence, as has, no doubt, been the case in geologic
history.

Direct compulsion would also exist where alternatives should be pre-
sented by nature, but of which the animal would not be sufticiently intel-
ligent to take advantage.

Most situations in the struggle for existence, afford alternatives, and
the most intelligent individuals of a species will take advantage of those
most beneficial. Nevertheless, it is scarcely conceivable that any change
or increase of effort, or use, could take place apart from compnision de-
rived from the relation of external circumstances, as a more or less remote
cause.

Preservation, with modifications, would most probably ensue when
change of stimulus should occur gradually, though change of structure
might occur abruptly, under the law of expression points."^

Choice is influence not only by intelligence, but by the imagination and
by the emotions.

Intelligence is a conservative principle, and always will direct effort and
use into lines which will be beneficial to its possessor. Here we have the
source of the fittest— ~z. e., addition of parts by increase and location of

^ See origin orOencra, p, 38-

,/

1.

i>

h '

I

1871. ]

259

[Cope.

growth force, directed by tlie will-— the will being under tlie influence of
various kinds of compulsion in tbe lower, and intelligent option among

higher animals.

Thus, intelligent choice taking advantage of the successive evolution of
physical conditions, may be regarded as the originator of the fittest, while
natural selection is the tribunal to which ail the results of accelerated
growth are submitted. This preserves or destroys them, and determines
the new points of departure on which accelerated growth shall build.

The influences locating growth force, may be tabulated as follows :

Division .

Influence

Physical and
ciiemical.

+ ? 7

use

effort under
compulsion.

-f choice.

intelligent choice.

Plants.

Plants with me- ~1

chanical move- |

ments; animals [-

withindetenainate j

movements. J

Animals with de-
terminate m 0 v e -
ments or wiil, hut j
no intelligence J

A n i m a 1 s with "]
will and less Intel- }■
licence. J

Animals with }
more intelligence. 5

As examples of intelligent selection, the modified organisms of the va-
rieties of bees and auts must be regarded as striking cases. Had all in
the hive or hill been modified alike, all soldiers, neuters, etc., the origin of
the structures might have been thought to be compulsory ; but varied
and adapted as the different forms are to the wants.of a community, the
influence of intelligence is too obvious to be denied. The structural re-
sults are obtained in this case by a shorter road than by inheritance.

The selection of food offers an opportunity for the exercise of intelli-
gence, and the adoption of means for obtaining it, still greater ones. It
is here that intelhgenb selection proves its supremacy as a guide of use,
and consequently of structure, to all the other agencies here proposed.
The preference for vegetable or for animal food determined by the choice
of individual animals among the omnivores, which were, no doubt, ac-
cording to the paheontological record the predecessors of our herbivores,
and perhaps of carnivores also, must have determined their course of life
and thus all their parts, into those totally distinct directions. The choice
of food under ground, on the ground, or in the trees would necessarily
direct the uses of organs in the appropriate directions respectively.

In the selection of means of defence a minor range of choice is pre-
sented. The choice must be limited .to the highest capabilities of the ani-
mal, since in defence, these will, as a general thing, be put foith. This
will, however, not be necessarily tl^e case, but will depend in some meas-
ure on the intelligence of the animal, as we readily observe in the case

of domesticated species.

In the case of the rattlesnake, already cited, the habit of rapid vibra-

i< i

t

>

i^ i

f'

,0

1

1;

I
I

tlj3l J

Cope.]

260

[Dec, 1-3,

h>&

tion of the tail, appeal's to me to be the result of choice, and not of com-
pulsion. For the cobra, of India, for the same purpose, expands the an-
terior ribs, forming a hood, which is a very different habit. Here are two
alternatives, from wliich choice might he made; and violent hissing is a
third, which the species of the cokibrine g'onus PilyopJiis, have adopted to
some purpose. As to the benefit of the rattle, it no doubt protects the
animal from all foes other than man ; but is rather a disadvantage as re-
gards the latter, being by a beautiful turn of events a protection to the
higher animal.

On the principal of natural selection it might bo supposed that the
harmless snakes which imitate the Crotalus for the sake of defence were
preserved ; but if the above explanation of the oi'igin of the habit in the
latter be true, the second explanation is not valid.

Tlie power of metachrosis, or of changing the color at will, by the ex-
pansion under nerve influence of special pigment cells, exists in most
Beptiliaj BatracMa and fishes. It is then easy to believe that free choice
should, under certain circumstances, so habitually avoid one or another
color as to result finally in a loss of the power to produce it.

Thus, it appears to be a fact, that not only are species of lishes which
dwell in the miid, of darker hues than those that inhabit clear water, but
that individuals of the same species differ in a similai" manner in relation
to their habitats, those that live in impure or muddy waters having
darker tints than those of clear streams.

Land animals present equally abundant and remarkable imitations of
the objects or substances on which they live. This is well known in in-
sects and spiders, which look like sticks or leaves, or the flowers on which
they feed. It is seen in reptiles, which in very many cases can voluntarily
assume the hue of leaf, stone or bark, or have constantly the gray color
of their native desert sands.

These cases are largely selective or optional in their origin, for though
metachrosis is also induced by some external stimuluSj as an enemy or a
food animal, yet other means of escaping the one and procuring the other,
are generally open.

These facts pave the way for a consideration of the phenomenon of
mimetic analogy which, though well known to naturalists, may be illus-
trated by the following new facts :

On the plains of Kansas, there is a species of Mutilla whose abdomen
and thorax ai-e colored ochraceous or brown-yellow, above. A spider of
the genus Saliicus is equally abundant, and is almost precisely similar in
the color of the upper surfaces, so much so as to deceive any but a most
carefid observer. The Mutilla being a well armed insect, and a severe
stinger, there can l)c no doubt that the Salticu^ derives considerable im-
munity from enemies from its resemblance.

On the same plains, the Oaudisona confluenia^ or prairie rattlesnake
abounds. It; is an olive grey, with a series of transverse brown dorsal
spots, and two rows of smallci- lateral ones. The head exhibits a uum-

' f

'

1871]

2(51

tCope.

]

ber of blown and "white bands. The prairie Heterodon, {II. nasicus) pos-
sesses not only the same tints but the same pattern of coloration, and at a
short distance cannot be distinn^uislied from it.

In consequence, as one may justly say, this species is, with the rattle-
snake, the most common serpent of the plains, as it shares, no doubt, in
the protection which the armature of the Caudisona gives its possessor.
This is in accordance with the views of Wallace and Bates.

A curious case occurred to me in four species of fishes, which I took in
a small tributary of the Yadkin River, in Roane County, X. C. Among
several others, there w^ere varieties of the widely distributed species
Chaenobryitus gilUi, IIi/pf^ile2ns a?iaIostanus and- Ptyclwstomus pidiensiSy
(each representing a different family), which differ from the typical form
of each in the same manner, viz : in having the back and upper part of
the sides with longitudinal black lines, produced by a line along the mid-
<lle of each scaie. This peculiarity I have not observed in these species
from any other locality. Until I had examined them I thought them new
species.

The only other species presenting such marking in the Yadkin River,
is the large perch, the RocGUS Uneatus. According to the theory of
natural selection a resemblance to this welt armed species might be of ad-
vantage to the much weaker species in question ; yet the same species
co-exist in other rivers without presenting the same mimicry.

It is difficult not to urge the importance of tlie causes already regarded
as efficient in the origination of structure, in the present branch of the
subject also. We are especially disposed to call in use and effort here,
after noticing how much more distinctly change of color is under the con-
trol of the animal, than change of shape. It must, however, be borne in
mind that similar resemblances exist among plants; though, as Prof.
Dyer shows, a large majority of tlicse cases occur in species of different
lioral regions. Thus in this case, as in those of structure already cited,
■we appeal first to physical laws in the lowest beings, but with the in-
creasing interference of use, effort and intoUigence, as we rise in the
scale. Tlius it is that in the Vertebrates generally, the mimetic resem-
blances are found in species of the same region^ where only an intelli<'-ent
or emotional agency could be illustrated. If among animals as low as
butterflies the influence of intelligence be denied, that of admiration for
the beauty, or fear of the armature, of the predominant species imitated,
would appear to be sulfioient to account for the result. Admiration and
fear are possessed by animals of very low organization, and with the in-
stincts of hunger and reproduction, constitute the most intense metaphysi-
cal conditions of which they are capable. But our knowledge of this
branch of the subject is less than it ought to be, for animals possess many
mental attributes for which they get little credit.

It appears to be impossible to account for the highest illustrations of
mimetic analogy in any other way, the supposition of Wallace that such
forms must bo spontaneously produced, and then preserved by natural

i^

^*-.

.J =

%

i

7d^

i. ■- ^^

Cope, ]

262

[Dec. 15,

^]|

'i!.

selection, being no explanation. It has been shown by Bennett that the
chances of such modification arising out of the many possibilities are ex-
ceedingly smalh

If tlie above positions be true, we have here also the theory of the
development of intelHgence and of other metaphysical traits. In accord-
ance with it, each trait appropriates from the material World the means
of perpetiiating its exhibitions by constructing its instruments. These
react by furnishing increased means of exercise of these qualities, whicli
have thus grown to tlieir full expression in man.

CEITIQUE.

1. On the preceding 6»^ay. — ^There will probably be found to be consid-
erable resemblance and coincidence between the theory of Use and Effort,
and the Lamarckian view of Development. The writer has never read
Lamarck in French, nor seen a statement of his theory in English, except
the very slight notices in the Origin of Species and Chambers' Encyclo-
psedia, the latter subsequent to the first reading of this paper,

Darwin's only speculations as to the origin of new structures which are
contained in his *' Origin of Species" (Ed., 1860), so far as I can find,
occur in the first and fifth chapters. In the first he says, discussing the
variability of domesticated animals and plants, " I think we are driven
to conclude that this greater variability is simply due to our domestic
productions having been raised under conditions of life not so uniform as,
and somewhat difierent fiom, those to which the parent species have
been exposed under nature. There is also, I think, some probability ia
the view propounded by Andrew Knight that this variability may be
partly connected with excess of food. * * * But I ara strongly in-
clined to suspect that the most frequent cause of variability may be at-

+

tributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been
affected prior to the act of conception. -^ ^' !N"othing is more easy than
to tame an animal, and few things more difficult than to get it to breed
freely under condnement, even in the many cases where the male and
female unite," ebc. Chapter V. repeats similar propositions but states
that the effect of climate he believes to be small, bat rather greater in
plants than animals.

The view as to the impressibility of the reproductive clement is taken
up by Mivart, but the subject remains in the chaos of unshaped hy-
potheses.

2. On the Origin of Genera. — The memoir issued by the writer under
the above name was chiefly devoted to the demonstration of the law of
Acceleration and Retardation. A small portion was devoted to geograph-
ical and geological relations. It remains to correct two errors in the
former portion of the book.

(1). It is there stated (p. 5) that the Law of Natural Selection of Dar-
win is as follows : *' That the will of the animal applied to its body in the
search for means of subsistence and protection from injuries, gradually
produces those features which are evidently adaptive in their nature.

ill

— y-

!■

ISTL]

263

[Cope,

That in addition, a disposition to a general variation, on the part of the
species, has been met by the greater or less adaptation of the results of
such variation to the varying necessities of their respective situations.
That the result of such conflict has been the extinction of those types
that are not adapted to their immediate or changed conditions and the
preservation of those that are."

It is unnecessary to state that the first senten:;e of the above does not
express the theory of Darwin in any part or particular, while the two fol-
lowing do.

Further, it is stated (same page), '' What we propose is, that of [gen-
eric characters] comparatively very few, in the whole range of animals
and plants, are adaptations to external needs offerees, and that of specific
characters a large proportion is of the same kind. How, then, could
they owe their existence to a process regulated by adaptation?" Below,
it IS again said, "that while Katural Selection acts by the * preservation
of the fittest,' Acceleration and Retardation act without any reference to
fitness at all; that instead of being controlled by fitness it is the controller
of fitness."

Thus, from the existence of large numbers of non-adaptive characters I
was induced to believe that an antagonism existed between the two laws.
The present essay shews this to have been an error, and that by recon-
ciling them, they become coordinate factors in producing the result.
Thus *' Acceleration and Retardation " is the "controller of fitness,"
because all adaptive structures are produced in accordance with it, and
in no other way. The law of Intelligent Selection also prescribing fitness,
removes it from the domain of physical or material necessity implied by
Darwin's law of "Survival of the fittest." Adaptation therefore is
the guide of change, though not the mechanically produced adaptation
implied by natural selection. The disturbance of the balance of forces
produced under its influence, leaves growth force to create primarily, the
great number of unadaptive characters, which are simply unfinished adap-
tive ones, and secondarily, others occasioned by excess or loss of force '
in different directions.

The reconciliation of these laws and their complementary relations
were perceived before the essay was completed, see in the recapitulation
Prop. XL, p. 79.

(3.) Under the head of Heterology (p. 65), a number of groups are in-
troduced as *' Homologous" (as defined
p. 54). Some of these I believe to be
truly of this character, but some others
are probably not so related, but are
merely series of genera presenting simi-
lar structural peculiarities as conse-
quences of the operation of identical ==r »

laws. I would place under this head, "" "

and withdraw from the homologous class, ' pig. 13. ^g^^ ^^ ^33 ^

the famihes of Laceriilia Leptoglossa, Biploglossa and TypilophtJialmi,

those of the Old and Hew World Quadrumana and those of Cephalopoda,

1

] '

\ I

I I

w

■ I

I

. t

i 1

I

I

I 'I
I

'!

!^ k -V iJ-^^^

^>-^

hJ!^

■|

m

..^1

:i^

iij

1

1"-

Cope.] ^^"^ [Dec. 17,

Catalogue of tlie Pythonomori'iia found in tlie Cretaceous Strata of

Kansas,

By E. D. CorE.

{Bead before the American PhUosophical Society, December 17tJi, 1871.)

The followmg brief review is prei^arcd in coiisequeuco of the acquisition
by the author of a co})Bidcrable accession of material from the chalk of
Western Kansas. Attention is confined to one order of Keptiles at pres-
ent, owing to its predominant importance in the vertebrate fauna of
that time and i^lace, as is indicated by the great profusion of individual
remains and specific forms. Although occurring in America wherever
the Cretaceous formation appears, they are so far, more numerously rep-
resented in Kansas than elsewhere. Though not rare in New Jersey,
crocodiles and tortoises outnumber them; but in Kansas, all other orders
are subordinate to the Pytlionomorplia. As is now well known since ISOS-
the seas of the American continent %vcre the home of this order, while
they were comparatively rare in those of Europe. In the latter country
we have four species only determined by pataeontologists, viz :

Mosasaurus 3

Liodon 1

? Saurospoiidylus 1

In North America the species have been exactly determined from three
regions, as follows :

Green Sand of New Jersey.

Mosasaurus C

Baptosaurus 3

Clidastes 3

Liodon 4

(?)Diplotomodon 1

15

Rotten Limestone, Alabama.

Mosasaurus 1

Holcodus ' "f

Liodon ■ - 3

Clidastes 2

L

4

Chalk of Kansas.

Clidastes 3

Edestosaurus 4

Holcodus 4

Liodon 6

17

* See Transactions Amer. Philo. Soc. Vol XIV.

{To he continued in No. 88.)

1871.]

265

[Cope,

We have additional species from

Carolina (Mosasaiirus) 1

Mississippi (Platecarpus) 1

Xebraska (Mosasaiirus) 1

inakintr with the others from

New Jersey 15

Alabama 7

Kansas 17

A total of 42

Of these I am not acquainted with any which extends its range into

• any two of the areas above named, while some of the district-s x^ossess

peculiar genera. It is nevertheless premature to draw any conclusions as

to geographical range, as most of the species are known from but few

specimens as yet.

Two genera have rec-ently been discovered in EuruiXi, which have been
thought to be allied, or belong, to this order. One of these, Acrodon-
iosaurus Hulke, rests on the anterior portion of a maxillary bone with
part of premaxillary and teeth. These portions are indecisive as to its
athnities. Tt is from tlie English Chalk. The second form is the Danv.-
Mosaurus of Bunzel, which its describer refers to the neighborhood of
Mosasau.rus. It is quite plain after an inspection of his description and
:ligures, that it has no affinity to that genus or t-o the order Pythonoviov-
^pha. It is from Neue Welt, from the Cretaceous, near Vienna.

The present investigations have added some points of importance to
the history of the structure of the order.

First, as to the pterygoid bones. It appears that these elements are
thin plates, having a free laminar termination, and are entirely toothless.
'They articulate with the palatines by a process which tits tlieir posterior
cmargination. In Edestosauriis tortor, they are about half the length uf
the palatines. They present no indications of ectopterygoid. The bones
named by authors pter3'goids, hi imitation of Cuvier, are elongate pala-
tines, and the external process extending to the niaxillarieSj is that seen
in Varani, serpents, etc., and is at no time distinct from the palatines.

It has also shown tlxat the supposition of Goldfuss and myself, that the
palatines of Mosasaurus were in contact on the median line, is an error,
and that they are more or less vertical plates, as in Liodon. The dis-
tinction between these genera, then, rests on the coossification of the
chevron bones in the former, and their permanent independence in the
latter ; perhaps the differenc-e in the form of the teeth may also count for
something.

Second, as to the parieto-stiuamosal arch, which is distinctly developed
in Ilolcodm icierlcus and Liodon curtirostris in its parietal part and //.
coryxdimis m the squamosal part. It was quite strong in the species
jnamed.

w

Third, as to the pelvis. This part, which has been observed by Marsh

A. P. S. — VOL. XII — 2h.

Oope.j

266

[Dgo.

■*—

in Edestosmirus dispar, is usually perfect in Liodoii dy.^pelor. Tlic
pubes are tlie ouly eiemonts united below, forming a weak support to tlie^
abdomen. The ilia are slender, not united witb vertebral i>rocesses above^
or without indications of such contact. The ischia are the most slender

and directed backwards.

Fourthly, in the hind limb. The femur of L. cmssartus has been
described by the writer, and Professor Marsh asserts its existence in Llo-
don, aiidastes and Edestosaiorus. The present collection exhibits both
femur, tibia and tibula of L. dyspdor, and these elements are now first
described. The first mentioned is not larger, sometimes smaller than the
humerus, and has a prominent trochanter, nearly connected with the
iiead. The shaft is not curved, and the distal end is expaiided. The
tibia is a narrow bone expanded at both ends, the iil)u]a is like that of
Pleslosaioriis, but wider, or partly discoid. It has been known to natural-
ists but not determined. Thus I figured it for Liodon laevis,^' and Leidy
figured it for an upper Missouri species. f

CLIDASTES, Cope.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. 18GS, p. 233. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc.

IbTO, 211.
YertebnG with the zygosphen articulation. [Palatine bones flat and

alate, the teeth not exposed at their bases unequally. This point has not

been observed in the type species, C iguaiiavus.}

ClIDASTES CI]SEKIAliUM, CopG.

Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc, 1870, 583.

Several individuals fi-om different points near the Smoky Hill lUver,

Kansas.

The largest species.

Clidastes vymanii, .Marsh.

Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts, June, 1871.

From two individuals from the Smoky Llill Hiver and its North Fork.

A small species.

Clidastes tumulus, Marsh, 1. c.

From one individual from tlxe Smoky Ilill River.
The smallest known Mosasauroid.

KDESTOSAURUS, Marsh.

Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts, 1871, June.

Vertebra with tlie zygosphen articulation ; palatine bones narrow,.
partly vertical, the bases of tlie pterygoid teeth exposed on one side, or
plcurodont. (It is uncertain whether the type of Clidastes presents this
structure or not.)

Fdestosaukus ToiiTOE, Cope, ap. nov.

Vertebm of the cervical and anterior dorsal regions with round articu-
lar faces, not emiu-ginate for the spinal cord. The bodies are elongate

■*TnuiS. Aiuvi'. riiU'js, Soc. 1S69, 205. \ (Crctaceuas Reptiles,) U. S. Tal). viii. fifr. 10.

f,

f

t^

^t

^

-^■'■tKr-i- V ^.JK

I

A

1871J -*^^ [Cope.

*

and somewhat contracted, and marked everywhere with finer and coarser
striai. Hypapophyses prolonged on the cervicals^ the free one of the
atlas with a prolonged koel-lihe process.

Quadrate hone with long external angle and rather thick antei-ior ala
with broad rugose margin. A prominent ohtuRe ridge is continued from
the external angle to the inferior articular extremity, the distal portion
being more acut«. A rugose process projects at the point wdiere the pos-
terior hook approaches the body, and is continued as an elevated narrow
ridge, parallel to the previously mentioned, to the distal articular surface.
A button-like knob appeal's on the posterior margin of the hook opposite
the meatal part. A. strong ridge extends on the inner face of tlie bone
from opposite the end of the hook to the base of the great ala. The
distal articular sirrface presents two planes ; the narrower at the eud of
the posterior pair of ridges above described ; the larger considerably less
distal, like a broad step.

The maxillary hone descends regularly in front, uniting with the pre-
maxillary by a minute suture. Its posterior extremity is slender and acute.

The premaxillary is short conic, not particularly prominent. The
■palatine hone has a slight expansion on the inner side ; on the outer the
margin is very narrow.

The teeth number seventeen on the maxillary bone. They are com-
pressed, least so anteriorly, and with a cutting edge I'rom base to crown
as far as the frfth from the front, in those anterior to that point the pos-
terior edge is discontinued. There are sixteen pterygoid teeth which ai'e
smooth and without anterior cutting edge. The frontal hone has a low
carina along the median line of its anterior portion.

M.

Length of axis with odontoid process 078

Diameter of ball of a cervical i J^^'t'^^al 026

( transverse 026

Expanse of diapoi^hyses do 084

Length of centrum 'do 052

Length of maxillary bone 363

** ramus mandibuli behind dentary 31

Length of premaxillary 04

Total of cranium (=3.3:J teet) 713

Length of pterygoid and palatine 315

Length of centrum posterior dorsal vertebra 066

Diameter of ball i r^'t'<==''l O^t

( transverse 038

The bones of this species are all light and slender. The elongation of
the vertebrse indicate that if their number was of the usual amount, the
animal was of more than usually slender pi'oportions. The position in
"Which it was found was a partial coil, the head occiipying the inside of a
turn of the dorsal vertebrse. As compared with Bl. dispar and 7?. "oelox of
Harsh, the present differs in the lack oi depression of the centra of the

■ ni^i

Cope.] ^^^ [Dec. 17,

vertebrae, especially tlie anterior, and in various details of structure of
the quadrate bones, as well as the larger number of teeth.

Discovered in Fossil Spring canon in the grey limestone by Martin Hart-
AYcll and Sergeant AYm. Gardner. But one specimen was found, which
includes the greater part of the cranium, with the vertcbrai as far as the
lumbar region,

Edestosaukus stenops, Cope, sp. nov.

Indicated by a large part of the skeleton of one individual, and frag-
ments of two others. The first inchides a large part of the cranirun, with
both quadrates, and lifty vertebrae, including tlie axis. The characters
are similar to those of the preceding species, but all the bones are more
massive, though of the same dimensions.

The teeth are strongly compressed, with cutting edge fore and aft, and
wnth the surfaces distinctly faceted ; there are seventeen on the mandi-
ble. The palatine bones are stouter than in JiJ. tortor^ but the teeth are
not larger, and are probably as numerous, as they arc similarly spaced.

The vertebrm exhibit round articular surfaces, those of the dorsal region
being rather stouter than the cervical, though the difference does not ap-
pear to be so marked as in the preceding si>ecies. The anterior ciiudals
possess wide diapophyses. The articular faces are a vertical oval, a little
contracted above, sometimes by a straight outline. They preserve a
peculiarly elongate Conn.

The quad7'ates, like those of the last species, have a very prominent ex-
ternal angle. They pi-esent various differences which may be regarded
as individual ; for example, the edge of the great ala is not expanded out-
wards, but only inwards ; the distal articular extremity is wider, the-
posteriorly decurved hook is moi'e contracted, forming a deeper external
concavity behind the external angle. Cliaracters of more importance are
the lack of tlie two ridges which l>ound the posterior face of the distal
end of the bone, that face l)eing thus convex instead of concave, and the
process below the meatus is isolated and not continued into a ridge, ex-
cept internally, when it gives rise to the heavy ridge which extends to the
base of the great ala. The button on the posterior aspect of the hook is
wanting, its place being taken by a recurvature of the smooth articular

face along the margin.

M.

Length of axis (above) O.OG

^. . 1 11 i vertical 027

Duuncter ball 1 1,,,,,^,,,,^,^ 027

Length of a j^osterior dorsal 060

T^. , V ^^ i vertical 0B3

Diameter ball | t,.„,,,,e,se 038

Length eaudal with ilat diapophysis 033

Depth cup, do 031

Width cup, do 03

Length mandible (28 inelies). . 720

Dci")th at coronoid process 150

" " proxhual end of dcntary 074

^' '' distal '^ " 02

>

►

f

k

\

^I^^

18T1.1

269

[Cope

(

k

A fine specimen of this species was found by :Martin V. Hartwcll near
Fossil Spring. Portions of a second were found by Lieut. Jas. H. "Whit-
ten on a bluff on Butte Creek.

Both the above species are the most elongate in proportion to their
diameter of the order. They are larger in their dimensions than those
next enumerated.

Edestosai:r.us dispaii, Marsh.
Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts, June, 1871. Smoky Hill River.

Edestosaurus velox, Marsh, 1. c.
Near the North Fork of the Smoky River.

HOLCODUS, Gibbes, Coi^e eme]Kl.

Vertebrae without the zygosphen articulation. Palatine bones flatj
alate, its teeth not unequally exposed at the bases, or not pleurodont.

This genus bears the same relation as regards the palatine bones and
teeth, to the genus Liodon that CUdastes does to Edestosatirus, as above
defined. The structure of the caudal vertebrae I unfortunately cannot
ascertain, and therefore do not know whether they are as in CUdasies or
JAodon. It differs from Mosasaurus as it does from Liodon, i. e. in the
horizontal laminiform palatines.

The name which I use for this genus was originally applied by Dr.
Gibbes* of Charleston to a species represented by teeth from the creta-
ceous of Alabama, but of which no other portions were known. The
teeth of the Kansas species now referred to this genus, are very similar
in character to those described by Gibbes, so much so as to lead me to
believe that when other portions of the H. aciitidens of that author are
known, they will be found to display the more impoi-tant fciitures here
regarded as truly distinctive of the genus. Its place is evidently between
CUdastes and Liodon, the pterygoid bone>s being those of the former, and
the vertical articulations being identical with that characteristic of Lio-
doiu In all of the species, traces of the zygosphen appear, but in the H.
coryphaeus, Cope, the rudiment amounts to a short process directed for-
wards at the base of each anterior zygapophysis.

The species known as yet are of medium size in the order.

IIOLCODUS CORYPHAEUS, Cope, Sp. UOV.

Characters. Cervical and dorsal vertebra3 with the articular surfaces
depressed transverse, slightly excavated above for the neui\al canal.
The diapophyses not continued inferiorly to the rim of the cup, on the
cervical vertebrge, and not receiving from it a cap of articular cai-tilage.
Occipital crest much elevated, quadrate bone small, the meatal pit de-
pressed between bounding ridges above and below. Rudimental zygos-
phen not uniting into a keel above. Teeth slender less curved than
//. ictericus.

Bescrixjiloii. This species is chiefly based on one specimen, which in-

♦The -l/bsasawrti-s and allies: Siaith^roiiiaii Conir. to Knowledge, 1851, 9Plate.

J-^^

>

"C 01)0. 3

270

fDec. n,

eludes the greater part of tlie craiiium and seventeen vertebrae, with ribs,
Isolated portions of other individuals were also fonnd in the same region

of conntrv.

The disproportion between the diameters of the cervical and dorsal

vertebryci is more marked here than the species of Mestosaurus. The
centra are less elongate, though with larger diameter. Tiie cranium
is relatively much smaller, the teeth absolutely smaller, though the quad-
rate bones are of equal size. Tlie general character of the species is
\stouter, but less strongly armed, and less elegantly built.

The hypapophysis of the atlas has a short small keel below^ Tlie
neural spine of tlie axis is elongate, but less so than in the two J^Jdesto-
sauri, truncate behind, with a median groove into which the anteru>r keel
of the neviral spine of the third cervical vertebra is applied. The dia-
pophysis of this vertebrjB has a short vertical articuhiting surface, and is
continued into a longitudinal keel, which disappears before reaching the
edge of the cup. The same process of the axis has a longitudinal paral-

le]t>grammio articular surface.

The supraoccipital is very thick and is roof-shaped, the keel rising

neaiiy perpendicularly from the foramen magnum.

The suspeiisoria are directed both upwards and backwards, at about an
angle of 450 in each direction, and supiwrt on their extremities the squam-
osa! bones. These are prolonged, forming part of their appropriate arch,
Th occipital condyle is transversely oval. The sphefioid bone embraces
as usual the basi-occipital protuberances ; it is not carinate on the
median line below. It sends out on eaeh side near the anterior extremity
a sub-horizontal laminar process.

The quadrate bone is much like that of //. icterkus, but is relatively
smaller. While the teeth in that species are smaller, the quadrate is
larger, hence the difference in the species is in this point quite striking.
Tiie external augle is prominent but veiy obtutio, and is the summit of a
very thick obtuse ridge which extends to near the distal articular surface.
The posterior hook is much prolonged downwards and has no button-like
process or extension of the articular surface on its posterior face. This
face presents a strong rib along the meatus and disappearing above the
pit, throws the latter into a depression. This is increased by the swelling
of the external angular rib. A prominent knob very rugose at the ex-
tremity rises beneath tlie end of the hook, and bounds a concavity be-
tween it and tlie external rib.

Tlie latter closes the concavity by curving round towards the knob above
mentioned. A keel rises exterior to the rib, and below it, and continues
into the external angle of the articular extremity. Another very promi-
nent keel extends from the knob beneath the hook to the base of the great
ala. The a.rticular extremity is transverse, and in one plane.

The maxillary hone, is marked with shallow longitudinal grooves. It
supports eleven teeth and has a rather steep prcmaxillary suture descend-

ing in front.

The narca] expansion in front occurs opposite the fourth

>

>

tooth.

1871.]

271

[(^i.ipe.

)

>

)

The ieeth are rather long slender and incurved and recurved. There is
a distinct cutting edge anteriorly and on a greater or less i>art of tlie
length of the posterior face. The crowns are ioxxv or iive faceted
on tiie outer face ; the inner face is more numerously faceted, and striate-
grooved. The section at the base is suh-circular ; higher, the outer face
is datter, the inner more convex. The apex is acute and the cutting
edges strong.

^\\e. frontal is narrow, and differs from the other Holcodi here described

in having the olfactory groove closed by contraction behind. Botli

pahUines are preserved. They support twelve cylindric conic teeth which

liave recurved apices and striate enamel. The section is a flat transverse

oval, where the external transverse process is given off". The shaft of tlie

bone is much expanded inwardly with a thickened margin ; exteriorly the

margin is thin, and is nearly followed by the series of teeth, wliose bases

are exposed externally, and are thei'efore pleurodont. The emargination

for the pterygoid is very deep.

M.

Length of axis with odontoid 0.074

" third cervical 048

-... 4. 1 n J ( vertical 021

Diameter ball, do. | transverse 03^

Elevation of spine of do. from centrum 04r>

Length posterior dorsal 0G8

TV X i_ f vertical 033

Diameter centrum | ^,.^,,,,,,,,^ _ 048 .

Length basioccipital and basisphenoid 084

Elevation occipital crest above floor of foramen magnum. . . .03

Length suspensoriuni from foramen ovale 00

Length os quadratum 073

AVidth distal extremity 036

Lcnirth OS maxillare 21

Depth do. at third tooth 03G ■

Length fourth tooth 032

" of crown of do 021

Length of palatine bone 155

This fossil was found by the writer projecting from the side oi' a bluff
In a branch of the Fossil Spring Canon near the moutli of Fox Cafio]i.
The bluff was from 80 to 100 feet in height, and the Holcodus was taken
iVom a position forty feet below the summit, from the yellow chalk.

HOT.CODUS TECTULUS, Cox^Cj Sp. UOV.

Establislied on a inimber of cervical and dorsal vertebras of smaller size
ti)an those characteristic of the other species of the genus. The centra
have not suffered from distortion under pressure. The articular surfaces
ai'c depressed transverse elliptic in outline, with a slight superior excava-
tion for the neural canal. A well marked constriction surrounds the ball.
There is a rudimental zygosphen in the form of an acute ridge rising from

-^-

l>t

Cope] 2*^^ ^^'-^^^

the inner basis of the zygapopliysis and uniting with its fello-vv of the
other side forming a production of the roof of the neural canal. The
combined Iccels become continuous with the anterior acute edge of the
neural spine. Thus the form is guitc different from that seen in the last
described species, and constitutes a louver grade of rudiment. The fact
that this zygosphenal roof is separated on each side from the zygapophy-
ses by an acute groove, gives the former a distinctness more apparent

than real.

The fixed liypapophyses are short and broad. The centra arc not elon-
gate. Those of the anterior dorsals present an obtuse keel below.

M.

Length of a median cervical 0.043

„ , ,, p T ( vertical 02

Diameter of ball oi do. | transverse. 083

Length of anterior dorsal 042

Width of cup ■• 082^

Found by the author on a low bluff or ''break " on Lutte Creek, four-
teen miles south of Fort Wallace.

HOLCODUS ICTEKICUS, CopC.

Liodon ictericus, Cope, Proceed. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1870, p. 577. Hay-
den's Geol. Survey of Wyoming and adj. Terr. 1871.

In adition to the two individuals of this species procured by Professor
-B. F. kludge in one of his geological surveys, the writer obtained a con-
siderable part of a third from a low bluff on Fox Canon, south of Fort
Wallace. This includes seventeen lumbar, dorsal and cervical vertebra?
including axis, with ribs, and a large part of the cranium with both quad-
rates, occipital and periotic regions, etc. Its characters may be brielly

pointed out as follows :

Articular surfaces of dorsal and cervical veitebra; transverse oval, ex-
cavated above for neural canal ; diapophyses not extending below to the
edge of the cup, hence not receiving an area of articular cartilage con-
tinuous Avith the rim. Occipital crest low, oblique. Quadrate bone
larger, tlie meatus depressed between ridges. A button of articular sur-
face on posterior face of hook. Scarcely any rudiment of zygosphen.
Teeth small, much incurved, faceted and striate ridged.

Some characters additional to those already derived from the first known
examples may be added. The mandible supports only tw^elve teetln The-
palatine bone isshoi'ter anterior to the external process, and longer behind
it than in 11. coryphmtis. In our specimen, the posterior extremity is
broken off, yet shows no indication of the emargination for the ptery-
goid bone an inch behind the position of its anterior extremity in //.
"loryX'hcBm. There are ten teeth on tlie part pres'erved, four in front of
transverse process (six in IL coryphams), and six (probably seven) behind
(six in IL coryphmis). The plate is more expanded than in the last-
named species, especially the thickened inner margin, which only ap-

>

I

.9

\

)

N

i

i

i

)

>

I .

■ I

>

\

i

1871.J -'-^ [Cope.

proaches the basis of the last tooth ; (reaches the tooth line at the fifth hi
//. coryplumifi,)

The occipital crest is low and directed obliquely forwards from the for-
amen magnum. The susi^ensoria ai^e stout, and directed at an angle of
450 in both the superior ard posterior directions. Tli^hamplienoid is
strongly keeled below. The quaclratum is like that of H. coryphcEUS in
its massive external angle and ridge, but differs in the shorter hook and
the non-interruption of the groove between the external angular ridge
and the knob belov>- the meatus. The cervical and dorsal veriebrce display
the same disproportion in size, observed in II. corypluJiiiS.

Length os quadratum O.OSl

Width articular extremity of do 088

Length dentary bone , 28

, " tooth of do. third from behind 023

'i " crown only OlG

" suspensorinm from foramen ovale ■ .lOS

Total length cranium (23 in.) 08

HOLCODUS MUDGEI, CopC.

Liodon viuclgci, Cope, Proc. Am. Philos. See, 1870, 581. Hayden's
Survey Wyoming, etc., 1871, x>. 581.

The specimen of this species obtained by Professor Mudge on the
Smoky Hill River, is the only one known to tlie writer. The characters
distinguishing it are the f(.)llowing :

Vcrtebrse without rudimcntal zygosphen. Quadrate bone with plane
surfaces from the proximal articular surface and the external obtuse angled
ridge to the meatal pit ; the latter therefore not sunk in a depression as

the other species.

The frontal bone is like that of //. ictericus, furnished with an open
olfactory groove on the inferior face ; it is wider over the orbits.

Are-examination of the vertebnc of the type specimen, which I de-
scribed as having compressed centra, renders it probable that they have
been so modified by pressure as to render their normal shape a matter of

uncertainty.

LIODON, Owen, Cope, emend.

Trans. Xm. Philos. Soc., 1870, p. 200.

Yertebr® without zygosphen and zygantmm. Palatine bones separated
from each other, narrowed, the teeth more or less pleurodont. Chevron
bones articulated freely with the caudal vertebra.

Tills genus embraces several species from the Kansas Chalk, which
range in size from the most usual in the last genus, to the largest known
in the order.

Liodon cuktirostkis. Cope, sp. nov.

Characters. Cervical and dorsal vertebras with transversely oval artic-
ular faces, wdiich are little depressed, and though not continued to the.

A. P. S. — VOL. XII — 2l.

_5ds**^

^- - -n \ ^WBAr^ ■_\-i -^^—^ j^-^ -j-L^ - J— .-rxj-j_ r\-n— ^^ _ - ^v-bjnii i^^ ri^-L t l^— x^\ ^i^ - _ ^ v\ ^ ^_ ^i^^J^ " ^~^— T+'b^-T^ ^»^BI X— ^ ""^ ^n ■ ^^^ KhJ\ K^FC^-I" ^ i^XxI-J""^ ^ ^ '-^'^^Ir^O "''^'■~ ^

J

1

! :

: ^

974

Cope.] ^*^

[Bee. 17,

neural arcli, are scarcely excavated above for the neural canal. The dia-

popliysis witli stout inferior horizontal branch, "which is capped by an )

extension of the articular catilage from the rim of the cup. Occii>ital

crest elevated, sub-vertical. Quadrate broad below ; pit sunk between

bounding ridges.

Description. There is a great disproportion i]i the sizes of the cei'vical
and posterior dorsal vertebrae ; the centra of the latter are rather more
depressed than those of the former. Tlicy are similar in proportion to
tliose of the Holcod-i and shorter than those of the Edestosaiiri, The
short axes of the articular faces are sub-vertical. The rudiment of zygos-
X>hen is seen in the slight anterior prolongation of the roof of the neural ^

canal. The keel of the hypapophysis of the atlas is short and obtuse.

The greater part of the craniuvi is joreserved. The supra-occipital keel
is vertical and. furnished at the summit with a plicate knob R)r the inser-
tion of a Ufj amentum, nuchci^-. The thickness of the walls of the bone is
not equal to that in IT. coryplKPU^ and the suture is a doul>le squamosal
i. e. with groove along the middle of the edge. The basisphenoid is but
slightly keeled below, and is distally expanded into a hoiizontal plate on
each side. I'he parietals are, as usual, confluent, and send oft" two light
arches postero-laterally for union with the squamosal bone. Between
theii- origins ai'e two sub parallel ridges which disappear, the transverse
section of the narrow part of the parietals being rounded. The lateral
ridges within the temporal fossae are obsolete, while the convergent angles
which bound the parietal table posteriorly are strongly mai-ked : Tlsis
table is nearly plane and the foramen i^arietale is large. TYia frontal is
narrowed in frotit, and has an elevated keel along its anterior half. The
olfactory groove is not much contracted behind, but is closed by the apex
of tlic rugose area in front of the foramen 'parietale.

The palatine bone is narrow and the external margin ks very slight, the
bn.ses of the teeth being exposed in that direction. The inner margin is
much thickened downwards, but not so as to be a vertical plate. The
hinder part of the bone is fiat and horizontal, with a long maxillary pro-
cess. The pterygoid notch falls opposite the second tooth from behind.
The whole number of teeth is eleven.

'Hid jaws are represented by the greater part of all of the tooth-bearino-
portions. The maxillary bone is shallowly sulcate on the exterior face.
Its proportions are quite similar to those of the 11. coryphcEus, but the teeth
it supports are larger and fewer. There are none missing from tlie ex-
tremities of the specimen, the whole number being ten ; in 71 corphyaittH
there are eleven. The crowns are incurved, faceted externally, and
striate-grooved internally ; there are cutting edges on fi-oiit and roar,
both strongest near the apex ; tlie anterior continued to the base, the latter
wanting on the basal third on median maxillaries. The anterior nareal
expanse marks the fourth tooth from the premaxillary suture. The
'premaxillary bone is remarkable for its shortness and flatness at the
■extremity, this part being depressed and scarcely projecting at the lowei-
margin in front of the anterior teeth. These as usual number four.

>

>

I

.1871.J ^'*^ l^^l'^-

Both quadrate bones are pi-eservecl nearly entire. They have the same
general character as those of If. ictericus and 11. coryplmus^ resembling
rather the latter in ilie great length of the posterior hook, which is with-
out posterior marginal button. The proximal external angle is large and
obtuse, and is continued into a prominent thick ridge. The latter divides
below, the thick extremity turning inwards and ceasing ; an acute ridge
continuing outwards and joining the exterior acute extremity of the dis-
tal articular surface. The submcatal knob is broad and thick, and not
prominent, and its extremity turns at an acute angle forwaixls on the
inner face and forms the commencement of the great ala. The ai-ticular
surface is straight crescentic with an expansion on a tuberosity on tlie
outer face (concave of crescent). The meatal pit is sunk between th.e
ridges surrounding, one of which is on the outer margin of the posterior

hook.

The viandibk is nearly perfect. The dentary bone bears thirteen teeth,

and at the extremity is contracted in both directions, and not prolonged
beyond the base of the last tooth. The ridge wdiich descends from the
cotylus along the inner face of the articular bone, is not nearly so strong
as in the //. mudgei.

Length axis with odontoid 0.062.

Elevation neural spine of do. at middle 046

Length third cervical (body) 05

T.. . 1 n ( vertical 025

Diameter ball j ^o,.i^^,,tal 032

Length posterior dorsal -065

T-.. , 1 n ( vertical ■ 038

Diameter ball | i.^rizontal 05

Length basis cranii 00

*' susponsox'ium 105

Elevation occipital crest above iloor foramen liiagnum. .045

Length tooth line pterygoid 115

" maxillary bone 24

*' .premaxillary laterally 035

AVidth *' " at second tooth 041

Length dentary - • ■ • -245

" maxillary tooth 03«

f " " crown only 023

" OS quudratum 077

Width " '' distally 045

Length parietal 085

" frontal to nares (mediiui) .11

Width '' between orbits 077

Total length of cranium (18.75 inches) 473

The specimen above described was found by the writer on the denuded
foot of a bluff on the lower part of Fossil Spring Cairon. The posterior
part of the cranium with several vertebne were found exposed, and many

Cope] --'^ [Dec. 17.

other bones, including the cranium were found only covered by the super-
ficial washed material. Other portions were exposed on excavating the
blue grey bed of the side of the spur adjoining.

The name has reference to the abbreviation of the hea<:I and jaws.

LlODOX GLANDIFEKUS, Cope, Sp. IIOV.

This species is represented by portions of two individuals from locali-
ties twenty-five miles apart. These .ire unfortunately in each case only
a cervical vertebra, but they agree in possessing such pecTiHarities as dis-
tinguish them widely from anything yet known to the writer.

One is an anterior, the other a posterior cervical. The articular sur-
faces are transversely elliptic, and completely rounded above, that is,
neither truncated nor excavated for the neural canal. Their vertical axes
arc oblique, i. e., make less than a right angle with the long axis of the
centrum, and the articular surface of the ball is thus carried forward, on
the upper fiice, to much nearer the base of the ncurapophyscs than usual,
in the anterior vertebra nearly touching them. The ball is likewise more
convex than in any other species, having a slight central prominence in
the iX)stcrior vertebra. There is no annular groove round the ball. In
both, the articular surface of tlie hypapopliysis is truncate and bounded
by an elevation in front, a peculiarity not observed in any of the species
already described. There is no trace of zygosphen in either. In the an-
terior vertebra the diapophyses are nearly horizontal, the posterior por-
tion sliglitly thickened and oblique. The anterior portion is thinned out
and very rugose above and below, and does not continue its margin into
the rim of the cup. In the second vertebra, the diapophyses arc very
large, vertical and with a hoiizontal portion rising in a curve to join the
middle of the lateral margin of the cup. Keural spine narrowed u])wards
keeled behind.

Length centrum anterior vertebra 0.064

Diameter ball | ^'^^'tical 03

( transverse 039

Length of posterior 004

Diameter ball j^ertical 03

( horizontal 048

Expanse of anterior zygapophyses 05o

The" first vertebra was found by the writer at the foot of a bluff on the

lower part of the Butte Creek ; tlie second was procured by Professor B.

F. Mudge from a i)oint one mile south-east of Sheridan near the North

Fork of the Smoky River.

It is this species that I compared with the Mof^asanrus deprefisv^^ ^^ope?
in a report on the collection made by Professor jMudge (Amcr. Philos,
Soc.j 1871j 1G8 Proceedings). The size is similar, but the form of the ■
articular surfaces is very different.

LiODOiv LATisriNus, Cope.

Proceed. Amer. Pliilos. Soc. 1871, p. 109.

This is a large species, nearly equaling the L. mitchelUiin its dimensions™.

>

V

I

w

>

>

>

1871.] -' ' ECope.

that is forty or fifty feet in length. The remains representing it consist
of seven cervical and dorsal vertebra?, five of them being continuous and

enclosed in a clay concretion.

These display the elongate character seen in L. laevis, etc., but the ar-
ticular surfaces are transversely oval, thus resembling the L. ictericus.
they are less depressed than in X. perlcUus and L, dyspjelor. The cup
and ball of the penultimate cervical are a little more transverse than those
of the fourth dorsal, and none of them are excavated above by the neural
canal. The last cervical is strongly "keeled on the middle line belo-\v, and
with a short obtuse hypopopliysis marking the beginning of the posterior
third of the length ; the median line of the lirst dorsal has an obtuse ridge.
Tliere is no keel on the fourth dorsal, but the lower surface is concave in
the antero-posterior direction. The diapopliyses on the last two cervical
aud three first dorsal vertebrae have great vertical extent ; the articular
surface for the rib is not bent at right angles on the Urst dorsal. Neural
arches and spines are well preserved in most of the specimens. There is
no trace of zygantrum. The neural spines are flat, and have consider-
able antero-posterior extent on cervical as well as dorsal vertebrfe, and
are truncate above. The first dorsal bears a long strong rib.

M.

Transverse diameter cup penultimate cei-vical vertebra. . . .051

Vertical diameter of same ' 041

Length centrum fourth dorsal, without ball 072

Vertical diameter ball 0455

Transverse do 0555

Elevation front margin neural spine penultimate cervical. . .088
Antero-posterior diameter do. do. do. .. .05

There are smooth bands around the ballSj and the surfaces of the centra
are striate to these.

The depressed cups of the cervicals and anterior dorsals distinguish
this si^ecies from the L. valid'us, L. irroriger and //. mucJgei. The same
elements are much larger and more elongate than in L, ictericus.

It differs especially from these species of Ilolcodus and from Liodon
cnrtirostris in the elongate form of the anterior dorsals ; in the latter, they
are much shoi-ter and in throe of them at least, the inferior limb of the
diapophysis is turned forwards to meet the rim of the cup, while this
feature ceases with the last cervical in L. laiisjnnus. The articular sur-
faces have planes at right angles to the axis of the centrum and are not
prolonged above as in L. glandiferus. The last hypapophysis is very

short, with the anterior margin transverse and elevated as in the last
named species.

In size, this species is intermediate between such gigantic forms as L.
dyspcloVj and the lesser L. curiirostris.

The type specimens were found by Professor B. F. Mudge, one mile
south-west of Sheridan near the "Gypsum Buttes."

\ ^- ^\ u ^

I

t|t

Cope.] - '*^ [Doe. n,,,.,

LlODON CRASSAUTTJS, Cope, Rp. HOV.

Liodon large species near L. prorifjer, Cope, Proc. xim. Philos. See.,..

1871, p. 168.

This sauriauj wliicb is similar in size to the la,st, is represented by a
series of dorsal lumbar and caudal vertebrae with some bones of the

limbs.

The vertebrse are as much disthiguished for their shortness, as those of
L. latUpimis are for their elongation. The articular faces are but little
broader than deep, and their axes are sliglitly obliciue. They are very
slightly truncate above by the neural canal,, The inferior face is some-
what concave in the longitudinal direction. The zygapopliyses are stout
and there are no distinct rudiments of zygospcn.

The dorsal vertebne best preserved are those in which the diapophyses
reach the middle of the sides of the centra, and have no horizontal limb.
They are narrow and have not extensive articular extremital surfaces.

The lumbars and anterior caudals have round articular surfaces. One of
the latter with strong diapophyses but posterior, is sub-pentagonal in out-
line of cup. The humerus is a j-emarkable bone having the outline of
that of GUdasies -propylhon, Cope, but is very much stouter, the autero-
postorior diraen.sions of the proximal extremity being greatly enlarged.
The long diameters of the two extremities arc in fact nearly at right
angles, instead of in the same plane ; and the outline of tlie proximal is
subtriangular, one of the angles being prolonged into a strong deltoid
orest on the outer face of the bone, which extends half its length. The
inner or posterior distal angle is much produced, while the distal ex-
tremity is a flat sliglitly cviJ'ved diamond-vShai)ed surface. The fibula is
as broad as long and three-quarters of a disc. The phalanges are stout,
thiclc and depressed, thus differing much from those o^ Liodon ictericu-^.
A bone which I cannot assign any other position than that of femur
has a peculiar form. Tt is a stout bone, but more slender than the humerus.
The shaft is contracted and subtrilateral in section. The extremities are
flattened, expanded in directions transverse to each other, the i)roximal
having,' however, a lesser expansion, in the plane of the distal end. The
former has, therefore, the form of an equilateral sj^herical triangle, the
apex eiiclosing a lateral fossa, and representing probably the great tro-
chanter. The distal extremity is a transverse and convex oval.

This bone is either ulna, femur, or tibia, judging by form alone. Its
greater length as compared with the fibula, forbids its reference to tlie
last; the trochanter-like process of the head is exceedingly unlike any
examples of the second bone I have seen. Its reference to femur is con-
firmed by its presence with the caudal-vertebraj of a similar species from
near the Missouri River, jSTebraska, and its resemblance to the femur of

L. dyspelor.

M.

Length liumerus 0. 10

Proximal diameter do 005

Distal " '' 102

ii

- _^«-r^rA

•J

>

>

970

1871.] -''^ tCope.

Length femur *^^^

Proximal diameter do ^^^^^

Median '^ " 035

Length centrum dorsal vertebra without ball 001

Transverse diameter cux) 0*^

Vertical " " ^'"^3

Length of a lumbar (total) 055

Diameter ball do (tntnsver.se) *H5

Length caudal 041

Depth ball do. .^ 052

Width do do 052

The form of the humerus is something like that oi Ichthiiosauru^.
Both this element and the femur are remarkable for their small size.
They are scarcely half the dimensions of the elemenU of the anterior
limb o£ Jlolcodus lcierini-% and are even less than those of L. di/.^pelor in
proportion to the animal's size.

It is unnecessai-y to compare this species with any but the lAodon pro-
rifjer. Of this species, I unfortunately do not possess any of the limb
bones, and must rely for comparison on vertebrae alone. 'i"he type ;:;x ci-
men lacks the dorsals, hence the caudals alone remain for compariS(»n.
This shows that they are three or four times as large as the same propor-
tions of the L. cnissartus. In a smaller specimen of /.. proriyer, the
dorsals are preserved, but so crushed as to be little available for measure-
ments. One point besides tlie greater size is noticeable, their generally
more elongate form, and the distinct superior emargination i'ov the neural

canal.

Tiie remains above described were obtained by Professor B. F. ^Mudge,

m

near Eagle tail, in Colorado, a few miles wei^t of the line separating tliat

Territory from the State of Kansas.

A series of twenty-nine caudal vertebrae with and without diapoj)hyses,
from a bluf[" on Butte Creek belongs perliaps to this species. The pro-xi-
mal specimens at least, cannot be distinguislied fi-om those of P' of ess or
]Mudge"s collection. The distal ones cannot readily be distiuguishLU from
the terminal ones of X. proriger.

LiODON PKOKIGER, CopB.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1800, 12B. Trans. Am. Philos. Soc, 1870, 202.

This is the most abmulant of the large species of tlie Kansas chalk.
The writer found a mu/zle consisting of premaxillary, and portions of
uiaxillat-y and dentary bones, in a spur of the lower bluffs of Butte Creek,
and numerous fragments of cranium and vertebra; on a denuded tract in
the same nrigliborliood. Both of these belonged to individuals of smaiUn-
size than the type, the opportunity of exajuining which I owe to Professor
Agassiz. The more complete Butte Creek specimen belongs to a huge
animal; the size is grandly displayed by a complete premaxillary bone
with its projecting snout, and large fragments of the maxillary. These

r !

'Cope] ^°^ [Bee. 17,

furnish characters confirmatory of those ah*eady given as above. The
vertebra; are remarkable examples of flattening under pressure, without
fracture, some of them having a vertical diameter no greater than one's
hand. The cervicals are less flattened and give the impression that they
were not transversely elliptic. This is consistent with our knowledge of
the perfect specimen, where it is as described, furnished with vertically
ovate articular surfaces. In this the cup is symmetrical and not distorted,
but the ball is a little compressed by pressure,

The most important addition to the knowledge of this species, furnished
by the Butte Creek specimen, is the character of the quadrate bone.
The external longitudinal angular ridge is very prominent and extends
to tlie distal end. It supports a hook-like prolongation of the proximal
articular surface, ahnost as lai.-ge a one as in GUdastes X)roj)ytlion and more
narrowed. The ridge is so prominent as to create a wider face or surface,
behind the basis of tlie great ala than exists between the latter and the
edge of the articular meatus. Tliis l>asis is quite convex outward and
embraces a relatively smaller space than in other Pythonomorpha. A
section of the bone at the meatus is subtrilateral with a notch behind.
The distal articular surface is prolonged below the origin of the great ala,

•and receives the keeled termination of the external ridge.

M.

Total length quadrate 0.153

Length from superior to inferior origin of great ala OS

Length external angle from bases of ala 052

The two usual ridges pass inward and doAvnwards from the aireatal

knob.

The above quadrates are flattened from witliin outwardly by pressure.

A portion of the palatine bone, supporting these teeth, displays the

characters of the type, viz. ; the inner face vertical and deeper than the

outer, and fonning a strong parapet of bone on the superior or toothless

aspect. The out^^r face a little expanded lat^jrally : the bases of the teeth,

exposed.

It is proper to add, that the locality ascribed to the type specimen
"near Fort Hays, Kansas," which was given me on inquiry, is probably
erroneous, Fort Wallace being the point intended.

LlODOX DYSPELOK, Cope.

Proced. Amer. Philos, Soc, 1870, 574 ; 1871, 168, 172.

This large reptile was first described from specimens sent to the Smith-
sonian Institution from New Mexico. Professor Mudge subsequently ob-
tained it in Kansas, and on my late expedition I had the good fortune to
procure a large portion of another, on a sloping bluff on Butte Creek,
fourteen miles south of Fort Wallace. This specimen is one of the most
instructive which has yet beon discovered, inchiding as it docs fifty verte-
brae from all parts of the column, a large part of the cranium with teeth
and both quadrate bones ; the scapular arch complete, except lack of
coracoid on one side, both humeri, radius and numerous phalanges of

\

}

i

f ^

'III -

\

4)

■l-|

xx->iYt^K>:T

1871.]

281

[Cope,

i

>

>

i

fore limb ; tlio j^elvic arch complete witli one hind limb complete to tar-
sus, with phalanges. Tlie premaxillary is wanting, but the adjacent
suture of the maxillary remains.

The froniO'?iasal septum is convex in transverse section. The 7naxil-
lary hone is much attenuated anteriorly, and supports thirteen teeth.
TliQ ramus majidibuU is high m-id slender; the angle is quite produced,
and the median articulation Indicates considerable mobility. The pa^a-
tine bones are narrower than in any of the species previously described.
They are deeply notched for union with the pterygoids, and the superior
posterior process terminates in an acute cone. In front of the articulation,
the bone is a vertical plate slightly concave on the inner side ; the ante-
rior half is subqnadrate in section, the outer face subvertical, the inner.
regularly rounded. The inferior surface is marked with a groove which
passes from the inner side to the outer. The portion on the outer side of
this groove, is on the distal tliird of the bone produced downwards into a
prominent keel or ridge. Tlie anterior extremity is an acute point. Each
bone bears eleven teeth, all of which have the external faces of their roots
exposed. The bones are curved outwardly from the fourth tooth from
behind ; opposite the sixth there is longitudinal concavity on the inner
face.

The occipital region and suspensoria are not present, but both, quadrates
were found perfectly preserved excepting tlie thin ala. They present
marked characters, being most nearly allied to those of L. proriger and L.
■validus. The proximal articular surface exhibits an obliquity in the
tTansvorse direction. It presents a large external angle which instead of
being nearly at right angles to the axis of the main portion of the surface,
is nearly in the same line. The dccurved posterior hook is very short.
The distal articular surface has, like that of other Liodo7is, a small trans-
verse extent, and is divided by a concavity into two tuberosities. The
outer of these receives at its angle the prominent narrow portion of the
external ridge, which extends from the external proximal angle. The
prominence of tins ridge is greater than in any other species except L.
proriger ; it is acute thi-oughout its length and has a gentle sigmoid flex-
ure. The basis of the great ala includes a smaller area than usual and is
continuous with a prominent narrow ridge which proceeds from inside the
metal crest. The metal crest takes the place of the "knob" in such
Mesasauri as 3L dckayi, it projects strongly backwards and outwards as
an angle of two ridges ; the inferior being acute and curved and termina-
ting above the middle of the distal condyles. The meatal pit is not con-
cealed between ridges, but is external ; its form is peculiar, being a nar-
row oval, three times as long as wide, directed downwards and forwards.
Thus the characters of this element are well nuirked among those per-
■taining to the other species.

The teeth are not much compressed, and have a cutting angle on the an-
terior and posterior margins, Avliich separate nearly equal faces.

The vertebral centra change in form from the anterior to the posterior

A. F.

S.

■VOL. XII

■J.

\

mw

Cope.]

282

[Dec. 17,

regions. The ball of the axis is round, those of the vertebnB early suc-
ceeding are moderately depressed. The balls of the dorsals are transverse
elliptic with a slight concavity for the neural canal ; the plane a little ob-
lique to that of the long axis. The centra are more depressed posteriorly
where the balls of the dorsals present rounded lateral angles. On the luin-
bars preceding the caudals, the base of the neural canal becomes more
elevated, and the articular faces assume a slightly pentagonal outline.
This form continues as far as our specimens of caudals extend. On three
lunibars, the centra present two longitudinal angular ridges below, at
whose posterior ends the chevron articular surfaces appear on the first
caudals. All present an incised marginal groove to the ball. The sur-
face, especially the inferior, is strongly rugose up to this groove, espe-
cially on the dorsals.

The axis is much shorter than in any other species here noted, where
known. The neural spine has a very oblique superior margin and is ex-
panded behind. The diapophyses are narrow, and continued as vertical
plates to the inferior face of the centrum at its anterior margin. The
diapophyses of the other cervicals have the usual horizontal limb, wdiich
is, however, shorter than the vertical. In the anterior dorsals, they are
directed more obliquely upwards and are longer. These, and all other
dorsals, maintain a connection between the rim of the cup, and the
anterior basis of the daapopliysis by a smooth area apparently capped
by cartilage in life, as exists in L. curtirostris. As we pass posteriorly
these processes descend, and become narrow^er, until finally they thin out
and lengthen into the ribless diapophysis of the lumbars. Those of the
caudals are long and subcylindric. Their extremities are deeply striate
grooved. The neural spines of all the vertebrae are longitudinaly striate
keeled. The zygapophyses are remarkable for their narrow form and
surfaces. The atlas is shorter on the outer, and longer on the inner face
than in L. 'validus. This is caused by the fact that the posterior articu-
lar face is not transverse, but very oblique, and instead of being vertical
and narrow, is obliquely longitudinal in its long axis. It is separated
from the inner face by a wide riTgose groove behind ; its lower edge sends
a keel downwards. There is no process at the thinned infero-anterior
angle.

The scapular arch was small especially the scapula, which is absolutely
smaller than that of the Ilolcodus ictericus, a very much smaller reptile.
The posterior margin is thickened, the anterior thinner, and less elevated.
The superior is arched upwards and backwards. The general form is less
oblique than in L. ictericus. The coraeoid is twice as large, and is Hat
and thin. Its inner margin is regularly convex, the posterior concave
and thin, the anterior thickened. The foramen is present.

The liumertts is different in form from that observed in L. crasmrttis, L.
ictericus, Clidastes, etc. It is relatively less expanded proximally and
especially distally ; there is but one deltoid crest, which is proximal and
near one extremity of the articular surface, and dis;ippears into the gcne-

-1^

\

>

\

$

1871.]

283

[COJtG-

A

K

I

rai plane above the middle of the shaft. The general form is flat, partly
dne to pressure. The distal extremity is hut little convex and displays
the terminal muscular insertions hut little produced. Near the inferior
end there is one external expansion for articulation with the ulna.

The radius is lost. The ulna, or a hone which is like that regarded as
such in several species described by me, has the extremities in different
planes which cross each other obliquely. The proximal is triangular and
very -wide, too wide for the humeri in their present state. It is also too
long, leaving but little space for a radius. The distal extremity is as ex-
panded, but mrich narrower, and presents too articular surfaces, a large
and wide, and a narrow^ connected by a wide isthmus. The bone was
taken out near a humerus, but not in position.

The pelvic arch, as above remarked, was found perfect, and with all the
elements in place, with a femur with the head in relation to the acetab-
ulum. The articular extremities are somewhat depressed and do not
precisely fit. The ilium is a straight flattened bone, dilated moderately
at the articular extremity. It is coarsely rugose striate at both extremi-
ties. The ischium is a longer bone than the ilium, is more slender, and
more expanded at the articular extremity, where it is also thickened.
The shaft is curved so as to be sub-horizontal in position ; it shows no
trace of union with its mate. The pubis is a broader bone, with the axis
transverse to that of the body, and sigmoidally curved, first slightly for-
ward then gently backwards. The common suture is about as wide as
the proximal extremity. The posterior margin is somewhat thickened ;
the anterior is produced into a process directed forwards, which is the
homologue of that seen in the Testiulinata, It is connected with the
distal end by a thin concave margin.

The femur is rather more slender than the humerus ; the distal ex-
tremity is about as much dilated, the head less so. The great trochanter
is a thick convex ridge with a truncate discoidal articular extremity,
which is iiearly separated from the head by a groove. Both extremities
are moderately convex. The fibula is similar to that of other species in
its broad, three-quarters discoidal form. Both articular surfaces are
stronoly convex and are continued on the inner side on the thinned inner
border. The external margin is thickened and deeply concave, and with-
out tuberosity. The tibia is a more slender element with sub-cylindric
shaft and much expanded extremities. The proximal is oval and is con-
tinued as a narrow ridge on the inner side, for contact with the corre-
sponding ridge of the fibula. The distal extremity is an equilateral
spherical triangle, of which the inner angle is on a different plane from

the remainder.

The phalanges are slender with cyhndric shafts and expanded extremi-
ties, which support oval articular surfaces. Those of the two extremities
appear to be similar. The distal ones are extremely small and flat, with

expanded extremities.

Of doubtful bones may be mentioned two with" flat expanded distal ex-
tremity and thick proximal, bearing an oval articular surface, with an

i

■ it

11

li

ill

m

\m

m \

»iii

9oj_
Cope.j ^"^ [Dec. 17,

aiigulate extremity which terminates in a thin edge. The form is like
that of a na^ro^Yed radius of L. ictericus, but it is much too short for the
ulna. As it was found with the scapuka, it is probably a portion of the
fore limb, and hence maj^ be a metacari:)al. A somewhat similar but
narrower bone may be metatarsal. A piece which is probably the free
liypopopliysis of the atlas, is a transversely elliptic piece with an oblique
smooth articular face at one end. The posterior face rugose, the inferior
with a flat truncate process .directed downwards and backwards. If cor-
i-ectly identified, its great peculiarity consists in its thinness auteropos-
teriorly, and the large process.

In comx^aring this species with the L. lororiger, its nearest ally, I have
already observed the diflerence in the form of the articular surfaces of
the cervical vertebrge, which is in that species vertically oval ; the present,
transversely so. The comparison is made between posterior ccrvicals of
both, which in L. dyspelor are less depressed than the others. As it m
possible that the form in the type example of L. proriger maybe slightly
affected by pressure, I compare other points. Thus the palatine bones
are more slender anteriorly, and the outer edge descends lowest in a
ridge ; in L. ']^)roTiger inner is produced downwards as a longitudinal rib.
In this species there are eleven teeth ; in that one, nine. The quadrate
bone of L. proriger presents a longer external angle, and more prominent
external ridge, with smaller space enclosed by the bases of the greater
ala. My statement in a published letter to Professor Lesley, that the cuds
of the mandibles were acute, thus diifering from L, proriger, is an error,
due to my having mistaken the palatines for tlie dentaries on a cursoi-y
examination in the field. The posterior extremity of these bones in L.
proriger is unknown.

The only species whose dorsal vertebraa are known to resemble in the
stoutness of their form those of X. dyspelor, is L. crassai'tiis ; the mani-
fold differences of the hitter will be at once discovered on reading the
dcscrii^tion already given.

Measu7'e7nents.

M.

4

Atlas length inner aiticular face 0.065

'' " posterior " '' 054

'' depth " " " 087

Axis length at middle of side 075

" depth anteriorly 081

*' elevation neural spine 075

*' width '' '' (plane) 045

- diameter ball iy^^'^^^^Vi m

{ horizontal 07

Cervical " " /vertical 066

( horizontal 070

" length 09

Anterior dorsal, diameter bail | T^I^^Al; " ^qt

' ( horizontal 087

(f-

i

\

ih

^

1 ,

'I'

i
i

)

1871.3 -^^ tCope

■ > Measurements. M.

Anterior dorsal, length below (with ball) 10

" *' " diapophysis 047

" " depth " 04

Posterior '* length centrum 097

,. j_ 1 n ( vertical 076

» diameter ball | i^^^.i^ontal 105

" '' height neural spine (of another) 12

Lumbar length centrum 09

,, ,. , , ,, (vertical 073

diameter ball -^ 3^^^..^^^^^^^ 09

" length diapophysis 096

Caudal (anterior) length centrum 073

,, ,, J ^1 1 n ( horizontal 085

depth ball I ^^^.^j^^^l 075

" '' length diapophysis 15

*i (posterior) '' centrum 067

" " " diapophysis 10

Caudal (posterior) height neural spine 087

„ ,, T j_ -u n ( vertical 03

diameter ball ^ j^^^,j^gj^t^^l 084

Maxillary bone, length 65

" length basis of two teeth (largest) 09

jMandible, depth behind cotylus 11

'* length " " 11

Width nasal septum 021

Length palatine on tooth line 38

Depth " at third tooth from front 039

Quadrate length .15

*' " external angle .029

** widtli face from meatus to external ridge 029

*' *' area of basis of ala 04

" " at condyles 07'

Scapula, height (axial) 12

" width 183

Coracoid, " IS'^'

*' length 20

" thickness at cotylus 027

Humerus, length 189

" proximal width 12

distal " 127

"Ulna, length • 179

. T^, ( proximal 115

^''^^^' idistal 116

" thickness proximally 06

Ilium, length 245

,, . 1,1 f proximal . . . ■ 039

^"^"^distal 178

!i

Hi

\ I

J

U

ill >

Cope.] 286 ^j^^^_ ^-^ ^g.^_

Ischium, length on cui've , . 350

" width iP™>^imal 018

( distal 087

Pubis, length (straight) 195

" " to anterior process (axial) 125

" width jPFf™''^ 085

( distal 075

Femur, length .185

C proximal 09;j

*' width I median. 064

( distal 130

Fibula, length .110

- width /P^™^i ■ 100

( distal 118

" proximal thickness 052

'' median width 08

Tibia, length 103

^ proximal 045

' * width < median 025

(distal 053

- thickness JP^™^1 • 042

( distal 030

Phalange (posterior), length 08

" terminal " 015

Esthnatcd length, cranium (five feet) 1.510

" total length 75 feet.

This specimen does not appear to be quite as large as the type, which
came from Fort Mcllae, New Mexico. The diameters of the vertebral
centra appear to be larger in proportion to the length of the cranium than
in the Mosasaurus clekayi, hence probably the body had a greater diame-
ter. In estimating its lengtli, reference is had to the relations in size of
the caudal vertebra) of the type of L. proriger and to the caudal scries of
a small Liodon found on the bluffs of Butte Creek. The caudal vertebric
are quite similar to those of the former ; in the latter, a series of thirty
centra exhibit very little diminution in size. On such a basis the length
would be about seventy-five feet.

Portions of a second individual of this species or of L. froriger, were
found on Fox Canon. They belonged to a larger animal, one equal to
the New Mexican first described. Professor Mudge has fragments of still
larger specimens.

The principal specimens above described was excavated from a chalk
bluff. Fragments of the jaws were seen lying on the slope, and other
portions entered the shale. On being followed, a part of tlic cranium was
taken from beneath the roots of a bush, and the vertebrae and limb bones
were found further in. The vertebral series extended parallel with the
outcrop of the beds, and finally turned into the hill and was followed so
far as time would permit. It was abandoned at the anterior caudal ver-
tebi'ffi, for more favorable circumstances, or a more persevering excavator.

V

)

I '

287

Tlie outcrop of tlie stratum Avas light yellow. The concealed part of
the bed was bluish. Yellow chalk left on the specimens in thin layers
became white or nearly so. The yellow and blue strata are dehnitely re-
lated in most localities, the former being the superior, but in others they
pnssed into each other on the same horizon.

>

Stated 3Iceting^ January 5tk^ 1872.

Present 14 members.

John C. Ckesson, Vice-President, in the chair.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from Professor
LewisStrohmeyer, Dec. 8th,1870(81,82,Proc.A.r.S.), Boston

Public Library, Dec. 19, 1871, R. Saxon Society, Feb. 8, and
July 8, 1871 (84, 85, Trans., Vol. XIV., i. ii.), Natural History
Society, Bremen, Aug. 29, 1871 (83, 84, 85) Professor Fre-
richs, Feb. 8, 1871 (83, 84, 85), R. Bavarian Academy, Sept.
18, 1871 (83, 84, 85, XIV., i. ii.), R. Observatory, Munich,
Aug. 14, 1871 (83, 84, 85), Imperial Russian P. G. Observa-
tory, March 13, 1871 (62, 73, 74, 78, 81, 82, Trans. Vols. I. to
IX., and XIIL, iii.), Bordeaux Society of Sciences, Xov. 16,
1871 (82 to 85), R. Academy, Berlin, Aug. 9, 1871 (83, 84,
85, XIL i., XIV. i. ii.), Imperial Observatory, Prag., Aug. 16,
1871 (83, 84, 85, XIV. i. ii.) ■ ■

Letters of envoy w^erc received from the Chief of IT. S. En-
gineers, Washington, Dec. 21, 1871, and from the Imperial
P. C. Observatory, St. Petersburg, Aug. 16, 1871.

Donations for the Library were announced from the pub-
lishers of the Flora Batava, and Dr. Schotel, P. G. Observa-
tory, St. Petersburg, Academy and Observatory at Munich,
Societies at Bonn and Bordeaux, Geographical Society and

School of Mines at Paris, Mr. Stephenson, M. P. Isewcastle-
on-Tyne,LondonX'ature,R. Astronomical Society ,theXatural

History Society at Bagota, S. A., the Massachusetts Historical
Society, Boston Library, Old and New, Silliman's Journal,

288

Chief of U. S. Corps of Engineers and Colonel Williamson,
the TJ. S. Coast Survey, Dr. Genth, Dr. Ilayden, Mr. Thos.'

Tennant of San Francisco and Mr. Stephen Olney of Provi-
dence, R. I.

Mr. Chase for the Committee on the Taper on Knights'
Tours, reported jDrogrcss.

The death of Eohert S. Breckinrido;e, a member of this
Society, at Danville, Ky., on the 26th Dec, 1871, aged 71
years, was announced by the Secretary.

The death of Professor Franz Bopp at Berlin, was an-
nounced by letter.

Mr. Eli K. Price read a paper on sonic Phases of Modern
Philosoi^hy, the discussion following which was postponed to
the next meeting.

The Chairman of the Finance Committee presented its
Annual Report, and, on motion, the appropriations recom-
mended therein for the ensuing year were passed.

Mr. Lesley was nominated Librarian for the ensuino- year.

Pending nominations 679 to 688, and new nomination 'No.
689 were read. ^

The Reports of the Judges and Clerks of the Annual Elec-
tion was read, and the following named persons were reported
officers for the ensuing^ year :

b

Wood

Vice- Presidents, John C. Cresson, Isaac Lea, Frederick
Fraley.

Secretaries, Charles B. Trego, E. 0. Kendall, John L. Le
Conte, J. P. Lesley.

Curators, Joseph Carson, Elias Durand, Hector Tyndale.

Councillors to serve three yea.rs, Daniel R. Goodwin, Eli K.
Price, "W". S. W. Rushenberger, Henry Winsor.

And the meeting was adjourned.

■* '

)

>

I

Jan. 5, 1872.}

289

[Price,

SOME PHASES OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY.

By Eli K. Price.

{Bead before tJie American FhilosopJdc Society, January oth, 18T2.)

\ .

>

>

"I am a brother to dragons, and a companion to owls." So Job was-
constrained to say in the hour of liis great afflictions : so otlicrs now say
induced only by speculative philosophy.

The tendency of mncli of the modern natural and physical philosophy
is to degrade our humanity, and to disx:)cnse with the belief of a Creator.
Delvers in a si)ecial field arc not content to exhibit what they find for the
use of those who are farther advanced and prepared to take a broader
siirvey from a more elevated height; but they theorize and make their
inductions from facts too few and inade(iuate for the conclusions drawn.
The result cannot be truth, but error. Theories so built are raised to be
quickly thrown down. They are the least fit to survive in the struggles

of science.

AU carefully observed and true facts philosophy must receive and

register for her legitimate uses. But if i)hilosophcrs be not certain of the
truth of facts, and have not all that are requisite for truthful conclusions,
they violate the fundamental canon of philosophizing : they necessarily
land in error, and bring reproach and ridicule upon philo30i)hers and
philosophy. Much labor and expense of printing are wasted, while stu-
dents arc misled, science is obstructed, and it is made necessary for the.
lovers of truth in the next to correct the errors of this generation.

I. The first subject to which I would now ask your attention is tliat of
Spontaneous Generation. Dr. Erasmus Darwin had, at the close of the
last century, ascribed to Natui^e the pOAver of spontaneous generation ;.
and thus concludes :

" Hence, without parent, by spontaneous birth,

Kise the first specs of animated earth ;

From Nature's womb the plant or inject swims,

And buds or breathes, with microscopic limbs."

[The Temple of Kature}.
"Organic life beneath the shoreless waves

AVas burn, and nurs'd in Ocean's pearly calves.''— [Ihid].

But he had the imagination of the poet; and his imagination some-
times assumed his facts.

There is a present effort to go a step further, and prove that life can
be prodnced by man from matter, without prox:»agation from other life ;...
and if you add to this the theory of evolution, by which all complicated
life is derived from first simple forms, we have two theories, which, taken
together, will account for all life, witliout a Creator. There are, however,
certain things, like perpetual motion, so contrary to nature, as not to be-.
credible. The fact of spontaneous generation has not yet been satisfac-

A. P. S. — VOL. XII — 3k.

I'

>-

ir

^^

^.<.7 r^

Price.]

290

,^

[Jan. 6,

torily proved ; and, it is believed by those best enabled to form a correct
opinion, will never be proved. The life produced by tlie experimenter
is, no doubt, but a process of developing seeds or spores, or of hatching
eggs, that exist invisibly in the atniosi>here, and within the tube used in
the experiment, and from which they had not been perfectly expelled.
And well it is that life is not, and cannot be, spontaneous, for, if noxious,
and no law of reproduction restrained the increase, there could then be
no hope of its effectual extermination ; but, if depending upon parental
production, when you destroy the parents, you destroy the pestiferous
succession. This was the basis of the confidence of Pasteur in his suc-
cessful I'esearches and efforts to find out and destroy the parasite that
destroyed tlie silk-worms in France.

It is also the hope of mankind to escape contagious diseases, that pro-
ceed from germs that ever re-producc the same disease, be it small-pox,
scarlet fever, or cholera, or otlier plague, for the spread of which the cor-
rupted air bcconrcs the fitting propagating medium.

If new generation were possible, there would result confusion ; it should
be bound by no rule if not produced in the course of nature ; there could
never then be scientific classification into genera and si^ecies, and all order
and harmony would become impossible. It is a necessary ordination of
the Author of nature that generation should come from a living parent-
age, and that j^arcnts should ever produce their like. Such we know to
be nature's procedure. Sucli process must proceed by law, that the pro-
geny shall be like their parearts, and of different sexes, and such law and
such sure observance of law, imply an intelligent Creator, who never
ceases to watch over his creation. Life has been on the earth in countless
forms, and in infinito multitudes, through nearly all the geological forma-
tions from water depositioUj and ever since ; but none of that life has
been thought to be spontaneous, except in the ininginationof the poet, or
of the fanciful theorist. All except tlie first of each kind, for which we
infer a Creator, came by generation, from parental germs and ova, as we
must believe from observation ; or by fission, which but subdivides life
and thereby multiplies it. It is, however, now announced in this age of
great discoveries that man can produce life where no life was.

Dr. Bastian has made numerous experiments and written a book on
"The Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms," and believes that he has
produced them de novo, *' independently of pre-existing living matter."
But his book makes necessary admissions that must go far, if not quite,
to destroy his theory. All the living organisms which he produced had
been before known as existing in the course of nature, and had been
named. They are called Bacteria, Torulce, Vibi'ones, Leptothrix. But
why were these, and but these, produced, unless they had a parentage
through germs containing life ? Why not something new ? Certaiidy
these were not new creations of life, but something re-produced that had
before their given law ; and it is easier for the scientific mind to believe
that the parental germs had not been removed by the experimenter, than
that he had witnessed a new production of life. This view is well con-

J *.

>

1ST2.]

291

[Price.

}

)

finned by this statement of the author: '^Bacteria, Tondce, or other livmg
things whicli may have been evolved de novo, when so evolved, multiply
and reproduce just as freely as organisms that have been derived from
parents," p. 3. Now what living thing or creature in all nature ever
has propagated, or can propagate its kind, except it has inherited that
power from a living parent? From the beginning it has been that the
grass, or herb, and fruit tree, *' whose seed is in itself," has yielded
"fruit after his kind;"' and the living creatures have " brought forth
abundantly after their kind," and only so have they replenished the earth.
Professor Tyndall'^ article ''Dust and Disease," is commended to the
student who would learn how all pervading in the air of London arc the
seeds of life and of disease. {Fragments of Science, 277.)— Stating the
result of experiments, he says, "The whole of the visible particles float-
ing in the air of London rooms being thus proved to be of organic origin."
(p. 270j) "The air of our London rooms is loaded with this organic dust ;
nor is the country air free from its presence." (p. 285.) And hence, no
doubt, the ova were hatched by Dr. Eastian, or the germs made to grow.
Sir AViiliam Thomson in his recent address, as President of the British
Association, (Nature, August 3, 1871,) adds his authority to that of the
opponents of spontaneous generation. "Science brings a vast mass of
inductive evidence against this hypothesis of spontaneous generation, as
you have heard from my predecessor, (Professor Huxley,) in the presiden-
tial chair. Careful enough scrutiny has, in every case, up to the present
day, discovered life as antecedent to life. Dead matter cannot become
living without coining under the influence of matter previously alive.
This seems to me as sure a teaching of science as the law of gravitation."
-)fr * * "I confess to being deeply impressed by the evidence put before
us by Professor Huxley, and I am ready to adopt, as an article of scien-
tific faith, true through all space and all time, that life proceeds from
life, and nothing but life. " Tet he, so true and wise in this induction,
did not close that same address without falling into an egregious blunder,
eliciting instant dissent and derisive laughter, followed by the universal
condemnation of the scientific press. He too would dispense with a
Creator, at least, on tliis planet, for he made the suggestion that the first
life came to our world by a falling Aerolite, though it came fused by heat !
But that was only to transfer creation to another planet. This suggestion
of course committed the learned President to the extremes of the evolu-
tionary tlieory, was to say that from such life as could be borne hither by
an aerolite all other life on earth has come and been developed upwards
to man. Of this theory let us next speak, but first pausing to declare
our faith that life came only from God, and by Him alone is ever protected

and preserved.

II. The theory of evolution as announced, seems to have been carried
to an extravagant extreme. Its agencies are chiefly two : natural selec-
tion, and sexual selection. The life that is best fitted to endure will live
the longest ; and the weakest will soonest perish ; and that which man
..takes best care of and most propa.gates is most likely to live in perpetuity,

t-

I

■X^r

■■«,

Price.]

292

[Jan. 5^-^

*

\f I

Ll

while that -which lie destroys, because hurtful, is most likely to perish;,
and this is natural selection, and to a limited extent, it is obvious to all.
Tlie sexual selection is that which the male or female makes Avhen mating.
The latter influence can have no i-)lace in the vegetable kingdom, for in
it there is no will to exert selection ; and there is very little of it, indeed,
below man in the animal kingdom ; for what female is there in it, unre-
strained by man that finds not her sufficing mate, be she beautiful or
plain? Nature is not checked in her purpose of multiplication, when
free, for want of masculine co-operation, for it supcrabounds. The seeds
of life are always superabundant. All the fanciful writing upon this
subject, the motives for the mating of birds and quadrupeds, by the
attractions of symmetry and beauty of plumage or color, seem quite unim-
portant : where all mate sexual selection effects nothing. The real check
to increase comes from want of food, severity of climate, disease, and
enemies, which spare not symmetry or beauty, and not from any failure
to be selected,

Nothing is more certain, however, than that as far as man exercises-
a dominion, by the culture of plants and breeding of animals, he does
greatly increase some in numbers and quality, and he diminishes others. -
He practices great partially. The ilowers and fruits, and vegetables and
grains that best i>lease and nourish him, he will most cultivate, and
destroy all things that most obstruct their growth. The birds, fowls and
animals that are most useful and please him best, he also breeds and
greatly multiplies, and he destroys their enemies. The cattle on a thous-
and hills are justly for its use, because they are bred and fed by himself
to do his labor and be his food ; and his care and skill make it sure that
they shall be the best fitted for his purposes. And this is also called'
natural selection ; although it is the result of man's skill exerted upon
nature and the laws that govern nature. Its effect is great, but is not
unlimited, and is subject to reversal when man ceases to exert his care
and skill.

There is truly a law of nature in propagation, that each species, and'
each pair of individuals shall produce a progeny like themselves. Man
selects the parental pairs of the qualities he desires, and his hopes are
seldom disappointed. He repeats the process until he arrives at the-
highest perfecbion in view that is attainable ; hence our deet race horses,,
our strong drauglit horses ; and also our finest breeds of cattle and sheep,
selected with a view to their qualities for milking, clip of wool, or beef,
or mutton. Thus the wild animals are inestimately improved ! And so
with these and other purposes, and the large indulgence of a capricious ■
fancy, have pigeons, poultry and dogs been improved, or greatly changed '
in their varieties, until it is made a question whether such variations have
not been carried to the length of making new species. The success of "
such proceeding has been made the basis of a theory so extreme, that it
at once threatens to destroy the classifications of science, and the religious- •
faiths of mankind. •.

It is, indeed, also true, that the like inheritable qualities exist in the:.-

>

>

i

>

1872.]

293

[Price,

\

>

>

human .species, and if men and -svomen were as careful in mating, as men
are when breeding their liorses, cattle, sheep and pigs, to consider -whether
those they select are well endowed with bodily and mental perfections,
the physical and moral qualities of families might also be alike improved ;
though tlie unattractive among mankind woidd still not be disappointed
in the opportunity of mating, if tliey have the means of livelihood or
the ability to win it ; the want of which constitutes the most serious check
to matrimony and the increase of population. But mankind are neither
so careful in selecting what shall be the qualities of the father or mother
of their children, as farmers are of the pedigree of their stock ; nor are
meii or women so careful of their own training and feeding, and the preser-
vation of their health and beauty by temperance and exercise, so that they
are more derelict in duty to themselves than to their animals, and the
race has not been improved as it should have been. Yet, it may well be
questioned whether the human race is improved in the aggregate by sexual
selection, since generally men and women do marry, and since the women
who fail to marry from the absence of personal attraction, are probably
outnumbered by those whose personal attractions, combined with their
moral weakness, causes them to become the victims of " the social evil,"
of which sterility is one of the retributions. Yet the race, is undergoing
n constant physical and moral improvement ; but it proceeds from
Christian civilization ; a civilization that does believe in an ever-living
watchfid Creator, and that would suffer terrible relapse, if that belief were
lost. This is said on the proof of boundless facts.

If we consider the conditions of all life as found in nature, before man
began to reduce it to his dominion, and the methods of his procedure and
its results, just as the evolutionists have described^ we shall be able to
vnhie their scientific significance, and to test the truth of the theory
raised upon the narrated facts. Darwin in selecting liis illustrations says,
as to dogs and their various bi'ceds, "that some small part of the difference
is due to tlicir having descended from distinct species ;" "In regard to
sheep and goats I can form no decided opinion." The humped Indian
cattle have a different origin from the European cattle, which are supposed
"to have had two or three wild progenitors." "With respect to horses he
says, " I am doubtfully incl ined to believe, in opposition to several authors,
that all the races belong to the same species." As to fowls, "it appears
to me almost certain that all arc descendants of the wild Indian fowl."
As to ducks and rabbits, "the evidence is clear that they are all descended
from the common wild duck and rabbit." "Great as the differences are
between the breeds of pigeons, I am fully convinced that the common
opinion of naturalists is correct, namely, that all are descended from the
rock i3igeons."--DarAvin on Origin of Species, p. 30 to 35. ISTow what
is the import of this ? First, that by nature, or the Cause of nature, when
or wherever man has not interfered to modify, the demarcations of species
have been well and persistently defined. Through all the geological ages
and downward to the time present, the operations of nature, ^\]len let
alone were and are simple and true, without tendency to vai'iations, or

^v.l H.

Jl

';3^

. I]

I

r

i

Price.]

294

[Jan, 5^..

acting under a power that ever corrected them. The wild progenitors
were without variations ; in that state new species were not formed by
process of variations ; nor was there transition by gradual change from a
lower to higher species ; nor do geology and history aftbrd the x^roof of such
change, and the theory depends upon conjecture asserted against the
truth of our observations and just inferences, that nature has always
operated as we see her now do in those vast domains of ocean, mountain
and forest, that lie beyond the interference of man. With the living
ife of the oceans man can do nothing except slightly to diminish the
numbers of whales and fishes, and there the i:)rocesses of nature go on
without change ; and so has it ever been in the deep recesses of forest and
mountains yet unpenetrated by man, or, if the scientific adventurer has
penetrated, it has been to leave no trace of his power there. It has been
man only that has disturbed the truthful proceedings of nature ; modified
them for his own benefit.

Again, it is to be considered that all that man has done, he must forever
continue to do, otherwise nature will re-assert her dominion, and undo
all that man had done to mar, or pervert, or i:)erfect her works ; and she
will restore them to their pristine simplicity. This we know she is always
doing, from abundant observations ; she makes hybrids unfruitful ; her
ban forbids changes that shall endure ; the seedsman and gardener ever
watch their choice crops, fruits, vegetables and esculents, and must do so,
for they know well that nature ever resumes the attemx>t to ''cry back ;"
that is, to return to that condition from which the skill of man has forced
her to meet his own wants, or to please his fancy. AYho can reasonably
doubt that if man was to cease to be on the earth that his seeds, and es-
culents, fruits, and all domesticated animals would in process of time,
return to their natui-al conditions ? Human care and culture and pro-
visions ceasing, the antecedent causes of nature would again come into
exclusive operation ; and by her OAvn truthful observance of cause and
effect, the ancient condition of vegetable and animal life would be re-
stored as they were on the face of the earth. Without his stores of pro-
vision and provender and shelter, a single severe winter would cut his
before housed and sheltered vegetables and animals, by frost or starva-
tionj down to about the thirty-seventh degree of latitude ; and half the
variations that have grown up under the training hand of man might
perish at a blow. What man has achieved over living nature may, there-
fore, be considered as an artificial work of but temporary endui-ance. Dar-
win fully admits this when he says, "Natural selection is a power inces-
santly ready for action, and is as immeasurably superior to man's feeble
efforts as the works of nature are superior to art." lb. p. 70. When let
alone she elects to return to her original conditions.

Of the variation i^roduced by selection in breeding and the better care
of animals, Darwin says, "the key is man'si^ower of accumulative selec-
tion : Nature gives successive variations ; man adds them up in certain
directions useful to him. In this sense he may be said to have made for
himself useful breeds." Origin of Species, 40. But what does nature do

/

>

\

w-w- l.1:L7T

_-jjdP

1872.]

295

[Price-

\

Avhen man does not seize upon the offered variations to make them in-
heritable^ by bringing together two of different sexes with the like varia-
tions to become parents of a common like progeny, and afterw^ards pre-
serving only those which most strongly shew the desired variation? The
variation from one parent only would quickly fade out into the normal
character. Those having variations, Darwin says, "would during th3
first and succeeding generations cross with the ordinary form, and then
they would almost inevitably lose their abnormal character." lb. 53.
Nature, of herself, does not interi:)ose to seize upon and continue the occa-
sionally occuring variation. She does not select a mate of like variation ;
nor does she develop it to a higher perfection by training or better feed-
ing, and make it the special centre of a favored propagation. Natural
selection, unaided by man, must, therefore be of very limited influence,
if any, to^vurds establishing a change, wdiether to be called a variation or
a species ; while the change that is wrought by man, would, without his
continuing maintenance, revert to its normal condition much more rap-
idly than it was formed. Again variations left only to nature's care,
must be such as give increase of strength, otherwise they will die out
from- weakness as all monsters do, or breed out to the normal condition,
lb. 90, 108. The varieties of pigeons have been the products of man's
care for thousands of years ; but not one-half the eggs of the best short-
beaked tumbler-pigeons would be hatched "without his aid to break the
shell. lb. 38, 90. This shews them degenerate ; a pampered and failing
aristocracy ; Avho, left to themselves, in a state of nature, would quickly

die out.

And what is the result of the selection of nature even when most as-
sisted by man? Has it produced any new si)ecies? For more than three
thousand years before Christ, and ever since, there have been pigeon fan-
ciers who have taken infinite pains in their breeding. lb. 38. Darwin
says, "the diversity of the breeds is something astonishing." "A score
of pigeons might be chosen, which, if shown to an ornithologist, and he
were told they w^ere wild birds, would certainly be ranked by him as well
defined species." lb. 34. Yet are they such ? Darwin says, "the hy-
brids or mongrels from ail the domestic breeds of pigeons are perfectly
fertile. I can state this from my own observations, purposely made, on
the most distinct breeeds. Now it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to
bring forward one case of the hybrid offspring of two animals clearly dis-
tinct, being themselves perfectly fertile," p. 37. Now, if there w^ere a
possibility for nature and man together to crea.te new species, it should
have been in the instance of the long and general experiment with pigeons.
It has at most amounted to producing varieties, in shape and exterior
plumage and appearances, while by the truest test of inter-breeding the
nature of the creature is essentially unchanged. It is probable that the
truth is the same as to dogs, horses, European cattle and fowls, except
as disx^arity in size has rendered the same test of intcr-goneration to a
large extent, impracticable. Surely, then, that law which the Creator
has so emphatically imposed upon His creation. He has not himself vio-

Price.]

296

[Jan. 5,

'I!

lated, in carrying on all His living creation from simple to higher forms
through infinite processes of generation. He who has forbidden the con-
founding of nearly allied species, cannot be taken to have carried on the
processes of generation, in violation of the ban against the confusion of
species, and in disregard of all the classifications science has adopted from
the study of creation, only the better to describe and understand tliat
creation. On the contrary, it is to be taken that generation has no part
in the work of creation ; but has only her assigned duty, under regulative
laws, to propagate creatures of the same species, of two sexes, to repro-
duce a progeny like lurto themselves. All that we can s.c muI know of
creation brings us to such conclusion. To create is one thing, and to
propagate in the parental likeness another. The propagator but fulfills an

assigned instinct that is essentially imperative, except as man is self-re-
strained by over-ruling moral considerations. His function is a very
liznited one. The inception of new life, its gestation and growth, and the
measure of that growth are the work of that Higher Life or Being, that
is, the Giver of all life, as we must logically infer ; for every effect must
have its adequate Cause.

The great distinctions of classes, orders, genera and species, as the
proofs stand in geology, history, monuments and living nature, have ever
remained unchanged and unobliterated ; while variations within species,
have been permitted for obviously good uses to man. The mules that he
breeds do him good service, but mules are not permitted to ])reed mules.
A theory that would permit a varying generatioii ^o thwart this grand
order of life, and that would traverse all these classes, orders, genera and
.species by violations of the ban we know to forbid hybrids to breed, wo
. may simply set down as contrary to nature and impossible, and such
theory demands the clearest and most indubitable proofs, none of which
have been adduced.

The theory is wholly illogical and inlierently inconsistent with itself.
The whole drift of the theory is to make generation build up all created
life, with one or a few exceptions, without a Creator. But why any ex-
ception? Only that there shall be a starting point in life; that there
shall be an incipient generator in this mighty process. But this earliest
life must have had a Creator, and the capacity to generate life through all
kinds must have come from a Creator ; yet this theory demands none, at
the begnniing, or in any stage of progression, but it obviously pro-
ceeds upon the ground that generation will suffice for all life, and that
life needs no Creator. Yet there is an overruling power, without which
generation could not proceed, without whom tliere would be no ban
-against confusion, and without whom the required difference of sex w^ould
not come into being in the requisite proportion. The reasonable inference
to be made is, that as a Creator was required for the first life demanded
by the Darwinian theory, and for all its processes of generation and the
after preservation of all creatures born, the same Creator would him-
self create all the creatures that share his protection, in all their various
species, and do so as the world was prepared for them, and w^as of the

y

'i

\

1872.]

297

[Price,

\

/I

\

temperature and had the food they required. The first creatures had a
delegated power of generation ; hut nothing in nature has shown that
they had a mission to carry on creation to higher levels either of physical
structure, or moral excellence, or of intellectual powder.

The wdiole theory is built ui:ion chance variations from the normal
course of nature, occurring at very long intervals of time. It is there-
fore, presumably, not the method by which the Creator has built up crea-
tion, from one or a few of simplest forms of life, into all the elaborate
classification in which wc now behold it. Thus, Darwin says, "Katural
selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations ;
she can never take a sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure,

though slow, steps." lb. 100. ^' New variations are very slowly formed,
for variation is a slow process, and natural selection can do nothing until
individual difterences or variations occur, and until a place in the natural
polity of the country can be better filled by some modification of some
one or more of its inhabitants." lb. 171. We have seen that the help
that man can give to promote such variations is very limited, and that
what he effects would soon relapse wuthout his continuing maintenance,,
and remain but a variety, and result in no new species ; what else but na-
ture, then, when man is not co-operating, is to "take advantage of the
slight successive variations ?' ' And what does she do ? If but one parent
has the variation it will very soon run out in the generative process.
This Mr. Darwin readily admits, and candidly stands corrected by the
North British Keview, \Yhile monster variations seldom live any length
of time. lb. 93. Thus the aberrations of nature are so few and far be-
tw^een, and so soon to disappear, as to afford no adequate ground for the
change of any species, much less sufilce to produce all the classes, orders,
genera, and species, into which science has arranged all living things,
from one or a few^ primary simple types. Nature is, indeed, slow to make
enduring changes, but quick to correct her errors. If jostled in her
processes, she does not make the imperfect product tlie basis of her
further w^ork to enlarge and perfect her systems of life, that all provided
food should have its fitting consumers. Nature is ever truthful and casts,
aside all lier products that have been marred upon her wheel, and uses
most those wduch come most perfect from her hand, and thus her pro-
gress is ever steady, or is improvement towards her best standard of eacli
created species, under favoring circumstances ; but is degradation where
unfavorable, or man violates the law of his well-being. This is confi-
dently said after such general survey as all who are intelligent may make,
— all who will lift up their eyes and behold the operations of all living
creation, or read the geological records,— not looking too constantly
downward with limited vision as wedded to pre-conceived theory.

Darwin admits the dearth of facts to sustain his theory, and enters into
explanations wdiy they are not foimd. Tie says : " To sum up, I believe
that species come to be tolerably well-defined objects, and do not at any
one period present an inextricable chaos of varying and ijitermcdiato
1-inks ; first, because new varieties are very slowly formed, for variation is.

A. r. s. — VOL. xn — 2ii.

Price.]

298

[Jan. 5,

If

11

a slow process, and natural selection can do notliing until favorable indi-
vidual differences or variations occur." lb. 171. But if all tlie classes,
orders and species come from one or two original and simple forms of
life, tliere sliould be everywhere and constantly found intermediate tran-
sition links, at different stages of progress towards tlie new species, and
presenting an inextricable chaos. This result is parried by the argument
that the process is so slow that it is not seen. The more obvious con-
clusion would seem to be that this transitional process, or " inextricable
chaos," are not seen because never happening. And Darwin candidly
states (lb. 173), '' Here, as on other occasions, I lie under a heavy disad-
vantage, for, out of the many striking cases which I have collected, I can
give only one or two instances of transitional habits and structures in
closely allied species of the same genus, and diversified habits, either
constant or occasional, in the same species. And it seems to me that
nothing less than a long list of such cases is sufficient to lessen the diffi.-
€ulty in any particular case like the last." The difficulty was to conceive
how an insectiverous quadruped could possibly have been converted into
a flying bat. But it should seem this would occasion small difficulty to a
theorist who could believe that bats and elephants and man himself,
sprang from an ascidian, a radiate, or trilobite, or some other early sim-
ple form of life. He, in such case, becomes too carefully scrupulous for
his own theory ; and he further conscientiously says (p. 198), "we have
seen in this chapter how cautious we should be in concluding tliat the
Biost different habits of life could not graduate into each other ; that a
bat for instance, could not have been formed by natural selection from
iin animal which could only glide through the air." Let us observe his
wise caution, and doing so we must reject his theory. He gives no ijroofs
that justify his conclusions.

Again, Mr. Darwin is constrained to excuse geology for affording his
theory but little support. Too few fossil specimens have been obtained ;
too many creatures have perished and lefL no likeness in the rocks. He
says, "although geological research has undoubtedly revealed the former
existence of many links, bringing numerous forms of life much closer
together, it does not yield the infinitely many fine gradations between
past and present species required on the theory ; and this is the most
obvious of the many objections which may be urged against it." lb. 415,
But he does not adequately answer this seemingly well founded objec-
tion. He excuses himself by the paucity of facts. Then it may be asked
why has the theory been propounded before adequate facts have been
gathered? Philosophy reserves the privilege of reprimandhig her vota-
ries who built their theories upon insufficient facts ; and truth compels
her to censure unsparingly. They are not permitted to indulge the am-
bition of theorizing before they have collected adequate materials for
their edifice. Darwin has ranged widely and observantly the realms of
nature, and w^c follow him interestedly ; but he seems at fault in making
Ills inductions from the facts he has learned ; lias built on an inadequate
foundation ; has made small things important, and overlooked the full

4

t

■1872.]

299

[Price.

I

import of the great. If his theory were true, the facts for its support

. should exist by millious, and by billions. That his researches have not
produced the facts he wanted, makes them tell more strongly against
him. If all living life, and all that has been, came from first simple forms
by slow changes, through all being up to tlie classes, orders, genera and

V species that we find in existence, and to liave existed through all the geo-
logical eras, then intermediate links should have been endlessly abundant,
and if but a liuudredth part of the fossil kinds had been exhumed, they
should necessarily have revealed tlie wanted evidence ; living nature should
also have abounded in ample testimony, by endless and inextricable con-

.fusion. To reacli existing results, the process of change being gradual,
the transition creatures should have teemed in myriad forms, other than
is now seen in fossil or in life.

But why, if there was such immensity of transition as to account for
the astounding changes wrought ; why, if such endless variations were
started in nature casually, or by chance, without reason or motive ; how

-came nature to act so wisely as to bring order out <:*f confusion and chaos,
and on that order to take her stand mort^ firmly than the mountains ? In
the transitional steps towards all the forms that have existed, of every

^shape and size from the little Rhizopod, Ascidian, Trilobite or Radiate,
at the bottom of the ocean, up to the whale, mastodon and man, during
an assumed necessary unimaginable length of time ; how was all life so
marslialed and placed as science noAV finds nnd arranges it, and finds it
ever resistant of all change ? Intelligence and will, even then, must have

..governed the proceeding and guided its purpose so that all should live
and not work confusion. That Intelligence that could do so much in
ruling nature, and could create the earliest life, surely could proceed more

■directly and without disorder, to create the kinds and species for whom
that same Intelligence had provided the land, air, water and food, upon,
in and by which they should all live, in congenial habitLilion. Cut Darwin
never recognizes that Being a,s essential to his theory : Ko ! the theory
makes nature herself a substitute for God. Her forces it was, that from
"time to time jostled all creatures into slight variations, and then she her-
self selected the best chance-products of a capricious generation and con-
tinued them, and perfected witliout intending to perfect them, and tlie
life of the weak and monstrous was extinguished, merely because not fit-
est to survive. If nature has such power over us and ours, and all living,
■shall we not impersonate and worship her as our deity ? Men did do this,.
in various forms, but it was before science and revelation had dethroned
^the heathen deities. They are not likely to be restored to the worship of
anankind, and thoughtful men. generally believe in one supreme God.

And why has there been any limit to classes, orders, genera and species ?
And why has the growth of each and all creatures had their normal limit ?
Certainly by some intelligent Power that ruled over what are called the
forces of nature. Why cannot the naturalist more frequently elevate his
views to recognize an Intelligence, without whom all that he studies, him-
•■self included, can have little significance, or philosophy any worthy or

\\\

■jlj

r I

ii

Price.]

300

Jan. 5,

consistent foundation ? God's order is the source of all science and philoso-
phy. But Darwin neither acknoAvlcdges nor denies the ruling of the
Deity ; ho invokes not His aid in the processes of nature ; nor yet does he
deify nature, hut says this of her : "It is difacult to avoid personifying
the word nature ; hut I mean hy nature, only the aggregate action and
product of many laws, and hy laws the sequence of events as ascertained
by us." It is obvious that the effect of the theory is displacement of God
from His works and from the mind of the naturalist. But the laws of
nature could not exist without nature had a Creator, and law a Law
Maker. Darwin admits that the ' ' highest intellects that have ever lived, ' '
have believed 'Hhere exists a Creator and lluler," but his theory makes
no account of Him. He woiild make nature Godless.

While Darwin's theory undertakes to rise from a few simple flrst forms
of life to higher and more complicated, he denies any purpose of a designer
to perfect his works, or any general tendency hi nature to do so. He says,
*'whatcvermay bo thought of this view, in none of the foregoing cases
do the facts, as far as I can judge, afford any evidence of the existence of
an innate tendency towards perfectibility or progressive development.'
lb. 132. The variations spring from individuals ; but from what cause or
with what purpose is not explained. The mass of the species remained
unchanged, and so live on through many geological periods. He says,
'^Geology tells us that some of the lowest forms, as the infusoria and rizo-
pods have remained for an enormous period in nearly their present state."
lb. p. 123. ' ' I believe that many lowly organized forms now exist through-
out the world, from various causes. In some cases, variations or individual
differences of a favorable nature may never have arisen for natural selec-
tion to act on and accumulate. In no case, probably, has time sufficed for
the utmost possible amount of development. In some few cases there has
been what we must call retrogression of organization. ' ' p. 134. All, there-
fore, has come from chance individual variations. Thus all higher life,
man included, has been lifted up, by chance-coming variations, generated
in the lowest and lower forms of animal life, without purpose, design, or
Designer : though the result is the exalted being man !

I make this statement with due care : He says, as to the mode of
transition, " there is no reason to doubt that the swim-bladder has been
converted hito lungs, or an organ used exclusively for respiration. Accord-
ing to this view it may he inferred that all vertebrate animals with true
lungs have descended by ordinary generation from an ancient and unknown
prototype, which was furnished with a floating apparatus or swim-blad-
der." lb. 183. This does not except the vertebrate man. He insists upon
placing man hi the order Quadrumana ; says, ''If man had not been his
own classifier, he wordd never have thought of founding a separate order
for his own reception." 1 Descent of Man, 183. He further says, ''we
will now look to man as he exists ; and we shall, I think, be able partially
to restore during successive periods, but not in due order of time, the
structure of our early progenitors. This can be effected by means of the
rudiments which man still retains, by the characters which occasionally

1872.]

301

[Price,

■v

make their appearance in liim, tlirouglr reversion, and by tlie aid of the
principles of inorphology and embryology. The early progenitors of man
were no doubt once covered with hair, both sexes ha^'ing beards ; their ears
were pointed and capable of movement, and their bodies were provided
with a tail, having the proper muscles. Their limbs and bodies were

..also acted on by many muscles which now only occasionally re-appear,
but are normally present in the quadrumana." -^ '^ "The foot, judg-
ing from the condition of the great toe in the fostus, was then prehensile ;
and our progenitors, no doubt, were Arboreal in their hal)itR, frequenting
some warm forest clad land. The males were provided with great canine
teetli, which served them as formidable weapons." lb. 198. ''Inaseries of

- forms graduating insensibly from some ape-like creature to man as he
now exists, it would be impossible to fix on any defmite point when the
term 'man' ought to be used." lb. 33G. That is, when he ceased to
be monkey and became man, by physical transformation. Mr. Darwin
has not attempted to sliow us in geology, iu liistory or in life, a man at
the point of transition, or to imagine or describe what lie could be, or
what the essentials to the change ; nor any creature yet in the process of

trasformation.

Thus, it is distinctly avowed that man was the result of this theory of
evolution, and that his ancestor was an ape ; whose ultimate progenitor
was some trivial form of life in the bottom of the ocean. Thus by

• chance-begotten variations in the process of generation, all the million
forms of life, in all their infinite distinctions, liave been formed.
Thus, through an instinct which no creature but man ever controls

■or disobeys, all living life has been • built up; nay, all created crea-
tures were, created, except some first simple form, which alone it has been
necessary for this theory to invoke, that there might be an inceptive
speck of life for the beginning of a process of variable generations. But
who gave this power to the first life and all later life to propagate such
variable generations? AVho created tlie sexes and the organs of genera-
tions? Who prepared the germs of life in one sex to be called into being

' by the other? AYho gave the instinctive desire that starts gestation, and
made the progeny to share the likeness and qualities of both parents ?
Who gave the parental instinct of protection of offspring, and who the
requisite intelligence for their nurture? It is left fairly to be inferred
that a Creator coidd only make the first simple form, and not the later
higher life ; or that life first came and worked on spontaneously. How
could the creature of inferior instinct by generation create that which
evinces the intelligence of the bee, the ant, the beaver and the elephant?
The skill and polity of the bee, that made the ancients ascribe to her a

■ spark of the Divhie intelligence ? Mere physical changes could not ac-
count for all these, and yet less for the mind of man. The Intelligence
of instinct, and of jnind, are not conceivably the product of matter, spon-
i^aneously or generatively, but we must ascribe such endovpmcnt to Him
who could mnko the ant wiser than the human sluggard, who forfeits his

■manhood and dignity ; to a Being infinitely superior in intelligence than

Price.]

302

[Jan. 5,~.

tlie highest intellect. If God did not create all creatures and endow them.
with the hiAV of their being, why should lie have cared for them as we
perceive throughout all nature ? He who ascribes nothing to God does
not answer the question. The questions which our reason inevitably
asks give him no trouble. He is tempted to deify nature but owns no-
Deity.

There are, indeed, common necessities to all life, that would go further-
to indicate its unity than tlie "rudiments " searched out. All must live
upon the food that the earth, sea and air supply. All must have power of""
digestion and assimilation, and mostly have hearts, circulations, viscera^
tissues, nerves and brains. The vertebrates have also flesh and boiies*
Now, in all tliis, there is a greater basis of brotherhood in all animated
nature, than in the few small matters ux)on which the theoi'y in question is
built. That life in embryo shall start similarly, is as much to be expected
as that the digestion, circulation, secretions and excretions should go on
alike. But whatever be the incipient or embryolic resemblance, the
mature development is always truthful to the demarcations recognized
by the classifications of science. All that have nerves to feel are objects -
of kindness ; but there fraternity ends.

Now, what are the particular things enumerated that declare our
ancestors to have been apes? Here is the inventory of tliem in the
author's words : " Some few persons have the power of contracting the
superficial muscles on their scalps :" 1 Descent of Man, 19. "One little
peculiarity in the external ear:" It is "a little blunt point projecting
from the inwardly-folded margin or helix," p. 21. "The nictitating-
membrane, or third eyelid :" which in man "exists, as is admitted by all
anatomists, as a mei-e rudiment, called the semilunar fold," p. 32-3. Of
the sense of smell in man, Darwin says: "No doubt he inherits the
power in an enfeebled, and so far rudimentary condition, from some
early progenitor, to whom it was highly serviceable and by whom it was -
continually used," j). 23. "Man diifers conspicuously from all the other
Primates in being almost naked : but a few short straggling hairs are
found over the greater part of the body in the male sex, and fine down
on that of the female sex." * * " There can be little doubt that
the hairs thus scattered over the body arc the rudiments of the uniform
hairy coat of the lower animals." p. 24. Andhcs<ays, "we nmst consider
the woolly covering of the foetus to be the rudimentary rex^rcscntative of"
the first permanent coat of hair in those mammals which are born hairy,
p. 25. "It appears as if the x^ostcrior molar or Avisdom-teeth were tend-
ing to become rudimentary in the more civilized races of man." p. 25.
* ' AVith respect to the alimentary canal, I have met with an account of only
a single rudiment, namely the vermiform apj>cndage of the ccGcum." V-
26. The foramen near the lower end of the humerus is said to be fouiul
in one per cent, of modern human skeletons, but much oftener anciently,
* ' one chief cause seems to be that ancient races stand somewhat nearer th an
modern races in the long line of descent to their remote animal-like pro-
genitors," p. 27-28. "The Os coccyx in man, though functionless as a-

?7

1872.]

303

[Price.

tail, plainly represents this part in other vertebrate animals." p. 28. "It
is well known that in the males of all mammals, including man, rudimen-
tary mammaj exist." p. 30, which Mr. Darwin finds it "difficult to ex
plain on the belief of the separate creation of each species." Darwin
concludes this enumeration by saying, " The homological construction of
the w^hole frame in the members of the same class is intelligible, if we
admit their descent from a common progenitor, together with their sub-
sequent adaptation to diversified conditions. On any other view, tlio
similarity of pattern between the hand of a man or monkey, the foot of a
horse, the flipper of a seal, the wing of a bat, etc., is utterly inexplicable."
p. 31.' And this conclusion may be admitted, if w^e believe creation had
no Creator. But if all creatures had a Creator who endowed them with
power to generate their like, but forbade them to generate their unlike,
the explanation is clear, and makes that of Mr. Darwin wlioUy illogical.
Was structure so great ever raised on so narrow a foundation ! Indeed,
this small liasis for so tremendous a theory, necessarily brings into ques-
tion the author's logical powers, and causes thoughtful men to set down

much to personal idiosyncracy.

These rudimentary signs of man's relationship to the beast arc of small
things, indeed, but according to Darwin, of mighty significance : but to
common apprehension of less account than the general functions common
to mammal life, and the approximation of form between the ape and
man ; yet, all considered, leaving one a beast and tlie other an immortal

being.

Is it not competent for the Creator to employ similar physical structures

and functions in animals, and to give to all the benefits of adaptation to
the food they are designed to feed upon, the situations they are to occupy,
and the life they are intended to live, without making the one tlie oflspiiug
of the other ? He who intended the good of all, woTild give the good hi alt
to every species, so far as adapted to the welfare of each, and this we can
more logically believe than that the man, the monkey, the horse, the seal,
bat itc, have blood relationship through a common ancestor. It is not
a welcome belief that whether we eat "fish, fiesh or fowl," we are perpe-
trating a kind of cannibalism, by feeding on distant relatives, though tho
degree of relationship cannot be traced, even with the help of Mr. Darwin.
And can science dispense with a Creator? The votaries of science may
grope througli special investigations until they cease to see God in His
works. But just so far as they cease to see God as the author of Nature,
they seem to cease tt) understand the logic of creation, in its pei-vasive
features, wisdom and magniiicence. Yet this theory of a generated
creation, if it could be believed to be true or logical, must still be taken to
rest upon a Creator and an upholder of all nature, and of the Universe, while
it Avill not own Him as Author of all kinds of life. But life could not he,
nor generation, nor birth, nor growth without His instant sustentation.
And shall He not create His creation with all the distinctions of class,
order, genera and si^ecies as we behold it? He must have created this
earth, the sun that warms it, the air, water and food by wdiich all life

-BK'

■m-^-

Price.]

304

[Jan. 5,

must live : and He must have adapted all life to these conditions of nature
in which it is placed. He who would deny the Creator in any part of His
works must bo prepared to do so as to the whole. Whatever he the pur-
pose of the theory its tendency is to teach men not to believe in God or
their own souls.

The reader will, if he yield his belief in any dcgrecj reason thus, and
say, if I sprang from an almost senseless piece of pristine life ; if after
my ancestors ]jad arrived to the stage of evolution next preceding man,
they were no more than monkeys ; then, as I believe, these had no im-
mortal souls so have I not an immortal soul : If I only differ fi^om them
by reason of a luore perfect physical development, that of itself could
give me no claim to an immortal soul. If I sprang from the beast I must
die the death of the beast ! And this idea would be strengtJiened by the
■Supposed possibility of a reversal of the px'ocess of evolution, under the
suspicion of wliich I would be brought ; for Darwin admits that although
the ancestral rudiments liavc become wholly suppressed for want of use,
*'they are nevertlieloss liable to occasional reappearance tluxjugh rever-
sion ; and this is a circumstance well worthy of attention." lb. 18. So,
indeed, it appears if man be not yet sure of remaining man ; if he may
relapse to the ape, or become a new variety and be on the road to become
a new sx>ecies, let those look to the possible consequences who have an
extra finger or toe, or whose canines or last molars, or 'slightly pointed
ears, show kindred with the ape or donkey. If their descendants should
cease to be man, can they in law inherit a man's estate? If there was
such a transition ;ix>wards there may as likely be downwards. Who can
tell what may be the freaks of nature, if nature be not in the keeping of

God ?

Mr. DarwiUj writing in support of his theory does not show the facts
that oppose that theory. He does not show^ the great difTerences
that exist between the species that he wouhl approximate. This is so
both when speaking of the physical structure and tlie mental powers.
When he passes to the admitted great mental and moral disparity between
even the savage man and the most intelligent of the inferior animals, he
.advocates tlie cause of the latter, by stating what they do with their dele-
gated power of instinct, and that they also exhibit instances of a glim-
mering reason. He, however, makes no near approximation, and admits
the difference to be enormous though the comparison be made with the
lowest savage. 1 lb. o8, 07. The theory is really based but upon the
physical structure, otherwise the ;ipo would not have been selected as the
progenitor of man, but rather the bee or ant, the beaver, dog or elepliant,
■who are far more sagacious than the monkey.

What do we now behold over the face of the earth ? Everywhere there
yet abound the animals through which man is imagined to have descended,
without having suffered variation or change, though exposed to the like
causes sui)poscd to have wrouglit tlieir fellows into man ; and everywhere
men, savage or civilized, liave been dispersed over the earth, and have so
been without any evidence of material physical change, throughout ail

f

■:i872.]

305

[Price.

i( T

tlie ages of their existence. Sui^clyj to do a\vay with this great fact, and
the further fact that all is now proceeding as it did from the dawn of
history, written or monuniontal, wc must, in the absence of all other facts,
except speculative inferences from very small things, called rudiments,
■conclude that God made man in the image he now bears, physical and
mental, except as man has educated himself, as no other creature was
ever endowed ^\■ith the capacity of doing. The great lines of demarcation
bet^veon the animal that has always followed only his assigned instinct,
■iind the higher being that has always had power to invent and make the
forces of nature, and all other animals subservient to his uses, — to invent
language, writing, printing, and to indefinitely accumulate knowledge
and perfect his own character, — have always existed over the earth, side
by side, utterly incapable of fusion, and in extreme contrast, in their
most marked characteristics. When we study by the microscope we are
not to disregard Ihe great things beheld by the unaided vision. If we
see the mote, ^vo must see the beam also.

So far I have but quoted from Darwin in relation to the theory of evolu-
tion. His simplicity and candor made it easy to answer him by his own
books. A writer in the Briti.^li Quai-terly, for October, 1871, appears to
have been assisted by microscopic observations, and says : "Almost every
tissue of the newt, frog, toad, and green tree-frog, has individual char-
acteristics of its own, which could be distinguished by one who was
thorongldy familiar witli the microscopic characters of the texture."

The ner^-e rd>res in every part of the body of the newt, differ in many

minute particulars from those of the frog." "In these animals not only

'do corresponding tissues exhibit peculiarities, but entire organs are

totally difTcreut." And he points out the dlil'erences. "Again, if we

■ take the skin of the four animals mentioned above, although it will be
^seen that there is a certain general agreement in structure to be recog-
-iiizcd, there is not a texture of the skin that is alilco in them all, " and the
'dillercnces are pointed out, with the assertion that "these seem to increase
in number the more thoroughly and the more minutely the tissues are ex-
X)lored." P, 248-9. If this closer test shall contiiuie to be applied, it jn'ob-
■ably may yet be believed that " All llesh is not the same flesh ; but there
if one kind of flesh of men, another flesh of beasts, another of fishes, and
another of birds," and that men may safely eat all the others.

Professor Wyville Thomson, in a late lecture in the University of Edin-

■ burgh, said : "Inuring the whole period of recorded human observation,
not one single instance of the change of one species into another has
been detected, and, singular to say, in successive geological formations,

-although new species are constantly appearing, and there is abundant
evidence of progressive change, no single case has as yet been observed
of one species passing through a series of inappreciable modifications into
another." "Xature," November, 0th, 1871.

And here I would ask to read the forcible statement of our Secretary,
Mr. Lesley, who adds his authority and force of logic to that of many

'eminent naturalists, and, I believe, nearly all the members of this Society

A. p. S, — VOL. XII. — 2m.

Price.]

306

[Jan. 5,

against tlie Darwinian theory : "If there has been a Darwinian develop- -
ment of animal life upon the planet, then it looks as if it had been car-
ried out along four lines rather than one. Four stand-points of creative
energy must have been assumed ; four startings out of life must be ac---
countcd for ; four mysteries, four miracles, four beginnings of creation,
to be developed instead of one ! But where all is mystery and miraclOj
additions are hardly noticeable. It becomes Mr. Darwin's business, then,..
not only to suggest some plausible, rational mode by which one species
could gradually or suddenly pass the short interval which separates it -
from another; his explanation must suffice to bridge the awful chasms-
which have always kept these four great plans of structure separate,
along the lines of their development. He must show us how an animals
of radial growth could be developed into one of linear growth. Nay, he--
must fill up the immense interval between the plant and the animal ; and^
finally, the chasm between the atom of carbon or hydrogen, and the nu-
cleated cell of albumen or fibrin. He must explain the genius of life
itself, before he can make his law of natural selection stand for anything
more than a beautifully worded description of the ills that all flesh falls ■
heir to when it is born upon this planet. How it is born ux^on the planet ■
is another matter, and remains unexplained by his hypothesis. We do ~
not get rid of miracles by chasing them back along the ages to the start-
ing point, and concentrating them there. A line of battle is not neces--
sarily vanquished and annihilated when it is rolled up by an attack upon
its flank, when there is a reserved ft>rce at the other end." "Man's-
Origin and Destiny," p. 78.

There is, however, one sufficing explanation of the mystery and miracle
of life — it is this : that there is a God, and that man has an immortal-
soul ; that this life is but the beginning of an endless being. The good-
fruits of this faith is an argument of its truth ; and man has consciously
the sense wutliin him that the life eternal awaits liim ; and he already
here communes with Deity. Such a life and such a soul must have had.^
a Creator infinitely suj)erior to the being created.

It is a decisive objection to the theory of Darwin tbat it takes account
oidy of physical structure, while the greater disparity between man and
all other animate creatures consists in his high moral, intellectual, and
religious nature. Lyell cites, to sanction Quatrefages in saying, "that
man must form a kingd(mi by himself, if once w^e permit his moral and.
intellectual endowanents to have their due ^veight in classification."
" Anticxuity of Man," p. 495. "It is by something completely foreign to-
the mere animal, and belonging exclusively to man, that we must estab-
lish a separate kingdom for him," p. 494. Lyell also quotes to adopt the
Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr. Sumner, in saying, tliat the comparison
should not be taken from the upright form, nor even from the vague
term reason," "but from that power of progressive and improvable rea-
son which is man's peculiar endowmient." " Animals are born what they
are intended to remain. Nature has bestowed upon them a certain rank, and
limited the extent of their capacity by an impassable decree. Man, she-

f
f

1872,1

307

[Price.

has empowered and obliged to Tjecome the artificer of his own rank in>
the scale of beings by the improvable gift of improvable reason."— lb.
496-7. And Lycll himself says, p. 498, "We cannot imagine this world
to be a place of trial and discipline for any of the inferior animals, nor
can any of them derive comfort and happiness from faith in a hereafter.
To man alone is given this belief, so consonant to his reason, and so con-
genial to the religious sentiments implanted by nature in his soul ; a
doctrine which tends to raise him morally and intellectually hi the scale
of being, and the fruits of which are, tiierefore, most opposite in character-
to those which grow out of error and delusion."

The tendencies of the Authors now reviewed is the most unfriendly to
that religious faith on Avhich human welfare essentially depends ; yet
it is believed that good will result from the divulgcnce of their tlieories ;
but it will be because of their failure ; because thoy will have compelled
men to re-examine their faith upon the platform of Science, and thereby
confirm their religion received by revelation. They will find in all truth
an accord showing its source one ; and in the constancy of nature the
truthfulness of God. They will find that He who created ever rules His
creation and compels it to obey His ordination. They will find that
only man was made in likeness unto God, and that he was made to have
dominion over all other living creatures. They will perceive that Science
can erect no barrier between man and his immortal hopes ; that the being
of an immortal soul stands elevated above all other animated beings by a
distinction that makes him but "a little lower than the angels," and a
child of his ' ' Father in Heaven " ; a Father who condescends to commune
with and be known of His children.

Stated Meeting, January 19, 1872.

Present 20 members.
Vice-President Mr. Praley in the cliair.

A letter of acknowledgment for Transactions XIV. 1. and
Proceedino-s, 84, 85, was received from the Bureau des Lon-
gitudes, dated Observatoire ISTationale de Paris, Dec. 1871.

Donations for the Library were received from the Observa-
tories and Royal Academy at Turin, Signor Denza, the Pevue
Politique, and M. A. P. Ilpvelaque, of Paris, the London Na-
ture, Pr. Preeke, of Dublin, the Montreal Natural History
Society, the editors of Old and New, and the American Chem-
ist, the College of Pharmacy, Franklin Institute and Acad-

"Copc.j

308

[Jan. 19,

emy of ISTatufal Sciences of Philadeli^liia, tlie editors of the
Medical Journal, ISTews and Library, and Penn Monthly, Mr.
Eli K. Price, the Secretary of the U. S. Treasury, the De-
partment of the Interior, the Engineer Department, and the
Librarian of Cono'ress.

Mr. B. S. Lyman offered for publication, in the Transac-
tions, a map of the Punjaub Oil region, with explanatory
text. On motion, this paper was referred to a committee, con-
sisting of Dr. Genth, Mr. Lesley and Dr. Horn.

Mr. Cope communicated the following paper on a new
Testudinate from the chalk of Kansas.

On a new Testudinate from the Cludh of Kansas,

By E. D. Cope.
(Head before the American Philoso'phical Society, Jan. 10, 1873.)

Associated with the remains of CUdasies, and other saurians, nnd at a
•distance of two or tliree hundred yards from tlie locaUty of the fossil
Protostega gigas, Avcrc found some vcrtehrse of a Testudinate reptile,
which approaclies the type of Trionyx and Ghelydra. It differs so
strikino;ly from both, and from all otliers yet known, ns to require no-
tice, and as the parts preserved (caudal vertebrae) ai-e those most likely
to recur in a well-preserved state in strata of this age, I propose to
establisli a species and genus on them, to aid in the future identification
of both strata and animal tvpc.

The vertebras have elongate centra concave below, and have well-de-
veloped diapophyses. A more anterior has transversely oval articular
extremities ; in anotlier they are much less depressed. The former is
the more anterior, being known as such by its larger diapophyses and
much smaller articular surfaces for chevron bones ; it appears probable,
indeed, that this one has been without these appendages. It is, there-
fore, from the anterior part of the series, from no great distance behind
the sacrum. Its position being thus determined, it may be described in
-detail as folloAvs :

As observed, the centrum is elongate and depressed. The inferior
surface at tJie cup is iiat, but is arched upwards, descending again to the
rim of the ball. The posterior two-thirds has a median groove, which
terminates in a deep notch of the ball, wJiich involves one-third of its
vertical diameter, and widens backwards. T]ie ball is transverse oval,
.and only moderately convex ; near its upper margin a small deep pit
interrupts its surface, having the appearance of an unusually large liga-
mentous insertion ; its border slightly excavates the margin of the ball.
The cup is a transverse oval, wider below. Its inferior and superior
■margins arc so deeply (but openly) emarginate, as to reduce the concav-
ity in tlie vertical direction very much. From the superior cmargina-

18T2.] ^09 tOopo.

tioii, a deep groove descends to below the middle, probably for ligament-
ous ' insertion. The neural canal is subtrilateral. The neural arcli is-
as usual in this group deeply emarginate in front, and much prolonged
behind. The zygapophyses project beyond the ball, and the arch is con-
tracted in front of them. Its upper surface has neither process nor keel,
but is rugose for ligamentous and muscular insertion. The diapophyses
have a wide base, and are subcylindric.

The surface is delicntoly reticulate rugose, coarsely rugose on the external
faces of the zygapophyses. There are several small pneumatic foramina,
the largest being in the bottom of the groove of the lower face.

Another vertebra differs in being rather more slender, and in having
an obtuse keel of the neural arch. The pit of the ball is wanting, and
the inferior emargination. The chevron articulations are larger, and
the oToove of the cup occupies the middle, instead of the upper half of

the cup.

Measurements. M.

Length of centrum (greatest). . ., 0.37

) vertical *^1

Length of centrum ^ i.orizontal 017

Elevation top neural arch above iloor neural canal. 013

Length of arch on median line above 02

Width " in front of posterior zygapophyses .013

A metacarpal or metatarsal-bonc, was found near though not with the'-
vertebrfB, and probably belongs to the same animal. If metatarsal, it is
much stouter than in Trionyx, but is more likely to be metacarpal. It is-
about as long as the vertebra), centrum nnd arch together. The proximal
end is transversely truncate, compressed L-shapcd ; the shaft compressed^
sub-quadrate, the articular extremely hour-glass shaped, with an inferior
projection for the insertion of a hexor ligament. Length, M. .031 ; prox-
imal diameter, .013.

These vertebrEB indicate a genus with elongate tail like that of Chelydra ■_
or probably longer; but they differ froni those in that genus, by their
procoelian character. An approach to the incised margins is to be found
iir Trionyx; but in those of that genus, where this character appears, the-
diapophyses are largely developed. The genus is evidently quite distinct
from anything known, and we await further remains with interest. The
species is much smaller than the Protostega glgas, and about equal to the
Mississippi Macrocltclys.

It may bo called Cynocekcus incisus. The remains on which it
is established were found by Sergeant Wm. Gardner, of my geological
expedition in Kansas, in the yellow chalk near to Butte's Creek, south of

Fort AYallace.

The discovery of this species and of the Protostega constitutes the lirst

indication of the existence of TestiuUnata in the cretaceous formatioii

of Kansas. The author originally pointed out the existence in it of

:lil

ill

Cope] ^1^ [Jan. 19,

BauTOptergia and Pythonomorpha, and during the expedition just men-
tioned, obtained portions oi pterodactyles and of a crocodilian of the genus
Ilyposaurus. The latter order has not been previously known from that
region, and their remains are not common. Prof. Marsh's exploration in
the Cretaceous of Kansas added Pterosauria, but he has not rei>ortcd any
Crocodiliaj as I once thought, and incorrectly stated. (Proc. Am. Phil.
Soc. 1871, p. 174.) The crocodile may be called Ilyposaurus mhhiamhs in
recollection of Dr. Wm. E. AYebb, of Topeka ; it is similar in size to the
//. rogersii of Kew Jersey.

An anterior cervical vertebra presents the following characteristics " It
is that one in which the parapophysis occupies a position opposite the
lower third of the vertical diameter. In it the centrum is stout in form,
the articular faces but little concave, the posterior a little more so than
the anterior. The anterior is almost regularly hexagonal, the posterior
sub-round, a little deeper than wide. The inferior surface possesses a
strong obtuse median carina, which disappears in front of the posterior
margin. Anteriorly it terminates in a short obtuse hyi>apophysis. The
suture of the neural arch is very coarse. Surface of the bone smooth.

M.

Length of centrum 037

Diameter, *' anteriorly, vertical 037

** " "■ horizontal 031

*' " posteriorly, vertically , .033

" •' '' horizontally 031

Length of surface of parapophysis 015

As compared with the 11. rogersii of the New Jersey Cretaceous, this
vertebra is shorter and stouter, and the extremities less concave ; the
suture for the neural spine is much coarser.

This crocodile was discovered in a bluish stratum, belonging to the
Benton group, or No. 20 of Meek and Hayden, encountered in digging a
well in Brookville, Kansas.*^ This point is considerably east of the ex-
posure of cretaceous rocks seen near forts Hayes and Wallace. It is
interesting as the first of the Crocodilia found between the Tertiaries of
the Rocky Mountains and the Cretaceous of New Jersey.

It was given me by my friend Dr. "Wm. E. B. Webb, of Topeka, to
whom science is also indebted for the polycotylus latixnnnis^ I have
dedicated the species to him.

Dr. Henry Hartsliorne read the following paper on Or-
ganic Physics.

♦Tliis stratum i& similar to tliatin wliicliDr. Hayden found tlie fisli Apsopelix sauriformis,
at Bunker Hill.

1872.]

311

[Hartshorne

■i

ox ORGANIC PHYSICS.

By Hexey HAiiTsnoRNEj M. D.

{Bead before tlie American Philow-pMcal Society, Jan. 19, 1872.)

In tlie title chosen for this paper, there may appear to be something

: anomalous or contradictory : organic science and x^hysical science being

■ commonly regarded as almost incommunicable departments. But as we

have long had, already, organic cliemiHry and animal mecliantcs, the ten-

' dencics of opinion, and to some extent the clearly rational interpretation

of facts, now favor the ro-inclusion of organic natural science under the

wide term physics, from which it became long ago separated upon

grounds of theory, and as it may still continue to be, for the classilica-

tions of convenience.

The proneness for unihcation, so natural to human intelligence, being

methodically sanctioned under what is called the "law of parsimony,"

the question from period to period in all fields of thought is, how far can

we legitimately get in our simplifications and unifications? Provisionally,
, at least, we must mark our steps ; as, what is done in these unifications

of science is to aim at the "reduction of our complex symbols of thought

to the simplest possible" aiyiyroiiriate "symbols." AVhen the alchemists

thought that they might transmute or reduce all elements to one, they
■ did not succeed. There are now some theorists who would reduce all our

ideas of law, order, and causation in nature to the one idea of continuity.
I believe that they will not succeed, in the end, better than the alchemists.

This endeavor is, just now, being made especially in the region of life ;

.and while, as already said, there is enough to sustain fully the proper
inclusion of vital phenomena along with the other phenomena of nature

..2i^ physical, I hold that there is not enough to establish this identity or
immediate continuity, in the sense in which it has been asserted by some
bioloo-ists. Let us address ourselves for a few moments to the elements
of this question in its recent aspects.

First : What do we mean by life ? Wliat is it that we are to regard as

-differentiated from, or identified with, the other physical forces of nature ?
We may drop out at once the old idea, that all actions of a living body,

.such as digestion, circulation, aeration, and the rest of the special func-
tions, are properly called vital ; or that these need to have any peculiar
or specific force, or phase of force, to explain them. Digestion is chemi-
cal ; circulation, mechanical, and so on. By proper exclusion, then, we
come down to this : that only one (perhaps a two-fold) process is truly
vital, in tlie sense that its facts come under the category of no other force

■of nature, under no other name hitherto known to science, but that of
life. And this process is assimilation, with type-formation or definite
organization as its result : the segregation of matter in a peculiar mo-
lecular state, whence comes its assumption of peculiar though rapidly
^changing forms ; the chemical instability of the matter being in direct

Hartshorne.]

312

[Jan. 19y.,

iill

II

correspondence with the mutability of its forms. Life is tlien a change,
a molecular motion ; and it needs a name for itself as distinctly as heat
motion, electrical, or any other kind of movement. But, is IL Lhe direct
resultant of those other movements? Is organic evolution simply in the
line or plane of the composition of the cosmic forces, g,i-avitation, heat,
light, electricity, magnetism, chemism, so as to be the mere outcome of '
these ? I would say, no. And this is a very ditferent thing from deny-
ing the correlation of the vital and physical forces. They are clearly
correlative ; but correlation is not indentity. And the question is a deep
one, wdiat their exact relation is ; it is now one of the cardinal questions
in science. Because of the wide variety of its bearings, let us regard
their most general aspect first.

Grant, as a postulate, the ' ' conservation of force. ' ' Then there follows :
1st, as its corollary, that not only is the total of force in the universe,
never diminished, but, conversely, this totality is never, by physical
causation, increased. As apparent exhaustion of force is only its trans-
mutation, so apparent increase of it must also be only transmutation of it.

3d. No change, in the nature or direction of any force, can, in accord-
ance with the second law of motion, be either uncaused or self-caused,
that is caused by the force itself. Every such change must have a special,
sufficient cause. When, then, the laws and tendencies of gravitative,
elective, magnetic, chemical and heat and light forces are known, and
are found to promote, by preference in all instances, the formation of
compounds of staUe equilibrium, by the union of carbon, hydroo-en,
oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorus, etc., we must expect this to bo uni~
forvily the result of their direct action. And, therefore, wlien we hnd
conspicuously unstable compounds to be formed of those same elements,
although in the presence of the same general forces, we ought to conclude
the formation of such compounds to be the result of another definitely
acting force. When the force x has been proved always to act in the
line A B, and the force y to act in the line C D, we must be sure that a
force acting in the reverse line B A, or D C, or in any line intermediate
between B A and D 0, cannot be either the force x or the force y, or
a force resulting from the composition of X and Y, but must be another
force, say z. Assuming the existence of z, we may then endeavor to ascer*
tain its relations to tlie other forces ; and we may also inquire whether
there may or may not be still other forces of whose composition it is the
resultant. So we ought to conclude that there is a special force, or mode,
or line of force, whose action is the assimilation and new construction
of organizable, protoplnsmic, or bioplasmic matter, because the action
so named involves a movement of elements in direct opposition to that
produced by the other known forces, as shown especially and invariably
by the action of those forces upon the same matter, when death occurs.

I may introduce here a remark upon the chemical part of tbo discussion •
whether, as a matter of induction, nil a priori reasoning apart, we are-
warranted in saying that organizable matter is and can be never produced:-

1872.3

31P

o

[Hartshorne.

by cliemical or any other general cosmic forces. Since Wohlcr's first for-
mation of urea from carbonate of ammonia, many years a^-o, tliis has
been much argued upon. Numbers of organic substances have since
been made by Bcrthclot and others, by more or less nearly direct syn-
thesis. But mark this. With the single exception, possibly, though
not probably, of neurin (that exception remaining very doubtful yet,
especially as the substance so designated as made by synthesis, is re-
ported to be crystalline -'or crystallizable), all the compounds so formed
are not organizable, but what I would call post-organic substances, pro-
duets or educts of retrograde or downward metamorphosis ; excreted or
secreted, — made in animal or vegetable bodies not by their life-force as
such in tissue formation, but by its *' composition " or balance with other
forces, in the retrogressive metamorphosis, the approach toivard waste and
death. It is not germinal but effete formed matter, to use the words of
Bcale. Such, for instance, is even quinia, thougii not yet made by syn-
thesis. Such may be neurin itself, in the form in which we get it aftev
the death of an animal, since no tissue is more prone to change soon after
death than the nervous. In fact, if with Lehmann, Moleschott and Hux-
ley, chemists should assert that life is only a property of certain sub-
stances, and, as some chemists at least say, that those substances can be
made in the laboratory, then wc must hold them to the test ; and deny the
formation of any of those substances themselves, until tliey are shown to
manifest all their properties, inchuling life.

Time cannot be allowed in this paper, more than to allude to the present
aspect of the closely connected question as to the evidence of experiment,
in reference to the origination of minute forms of life. After the contro-
versy (AA'hich was very active in the day of Crosse's electrical experiments)
had, by elimhuition, been narrowed down to a chronic debnte between
Pasteur and Pouchet, we are now surprised by its assuming larger pro-
portions, with Owen, Clark, Hughes Bennett and Bastian, coming out as
decided heterogenists, or advocates of abiogenesis. Similar observations
and like arguments, however, come up again and again. Ko better case
lias ever been made out for hcterogeny than by Charlton Bastian in his
papers in "Nature," 1870. I need not dwell on the known difficulty of
exactness in such experiments, from the first preparation of the appara-
tus down to the last examination of the results under the microscope : a
difficulty, as regards the total exclusion of foreign particles, pronounced
by some exports to be insurmountable.

We need only observe here that Bastian's protest against Pasteur's as-
sumption, that the prior weight of improbability is against the heterogenic
theory, is not warranted ; as the burden of proof certainly does rest with
the heterogenists. It being perfectly well known that no experience
exists of the beginning of life of larger forms, however simple, without
parentage, ^^ c may say that since nothing larger than j^^\^ of an inch has
ever been known to begin life in an entirely inorganic medium, the prob-
ability is vast that nothing smaller than j-^^^ of an inch diameter ever
does so. While Ave are not able to say that it is impossible, those who assert

A. p. S. — VOL. XXI. — 3n.

:

Ill

Hartshorne.]

314

[Jan. 19,

IhL

it must bring most cogent evidence. And the legitimate alternative, in
regard to all the heating or boiling experiments, is, whether we are to ap-
prehend in them new evidence of the resistance of some low living forms to
the usually destructive inilucnce of heat, or to assume the total effect
of thiSj and then conclude tliat a de novo origination of life has
really occurred. There arc many facts which sustain the choice of the
former interpretation ; facts, for instance, concerning confervoid vegetation
in boiling springs, and sucli as those observed by G. Pouchet and others,
proving the marvellous tenacity of rotiferous animalcular life. Jeffries
Wyman's experiments, moreover, seemed to show, that though four hours
would not, live hours boiling would, prohibit the appearance of any vi-
tality in the materials under his examination. Frankland and Calvert
have since strongly confirmed the same conclusion by tlieir careful ex-
periments. 1^0 one, however wedded to heterogeny, can say that
we are yet at the end of our knowledge of the limits of vital resistance to
j)hysical agencies, including heat. But note further : that putting aside
(although Professor Huxley does not) as unjustifiable, the supposition
that it was possible for an observer like Bastian to be mistaken as to the
really organic character of the very minute lilamonts and sporules, ob-
served by him in tartrate of ammonia or other solutions, under restricted
conditions, we must find in them at least something extraordinarily dif-
ferent from the life which we are accustomed to observe ; since a very
important part of the whole process was the entire exclusion of air ; so
that if there was life, it was such only as could exist in distilled water,
or in vacuo. And here, just as in the controversy upon the essential dis-
tinctions betAveen animals and plants, since deoxidation and oxidation,
fixation of carbon and its elimination, are directly opposite processes,
though Ave may not yet find their separating line, still the line must exist
someiohere. And it would be taking for granted a great deal more than
any evolutionist has a right to do as yet, to suppose, not only that Bas-
tian had thus manufactured sporules and filaments living in airless tartrate
of ammonia, but that all he would need would be some greater variety of
conditions and time to evolve from them the whole system of organized
nature. Bastian liimself has not yet asserted this.

A word more about the above named opposition between vital and other
cosmic forces. It may be stated thus : According to the nebular theory
mostly accepted now as the basis of cosmogony and evolution, — the form-
ation of the worlds of our solar system has been and is attended con-
stantly by the integration of matter and the dissipation of force. I have,
in tins expression, used Ilebert Spencer's words. The spheres in consoli-
dating from difi"used nebulous matter give otU force as heat. But, per
contra, organized beings integrate matter, and at the same time accumulate
force. In the language of Professor Barker's able discourse on the
Correlation of Vital and Physical Forces, "the food of the plant is mat-
ter whose energy is all expended ; it is fallen weight. The plant-organ-
ism, in a way yet mysterious to us, converts the actual energy of the

>

hi

1872.]

315

[Hartsliorne.

^

sunlight into potential energy within it. The fallen weight is thus raised
and energy is thus stored up."

As Dr. Barker adds, the force which is stored up is undeniably physical ;
hut I remark furthei'j that the process hy loMcli it is stored is of another
order, and involves a different kind of physical force movement from that
hy which it is evolved and expended.

What more can be made out about this mysterious force of life ? l^Tot
much as yet ; but enough, perhaps, to give encouragement to inves-
tigation. Reduced to its simplest element, namely, the cell, or the physi-
ological unit, life is a process of incretion and excretion. What goes in as
food is made into tissue, and (after functioning) comes out as "v\aste.
The functioning is secondary to it as life, though no doubt in itself pri-
mary under the view of purpose. The organic cell converts crystalloid
atoms or molecules into colloid molecules. iN'o-w what is the difference ?
not merely in the fact of diflerent degrees of diffusibility, but in the state
of the particles; the reason why they arc colloidal? May we not con-
j'ecture, that it may be owing to a differentiated movement of the atoms ?
Clausius and others have long since given reason for sup2:)0sing that the
particles of all gases are in incessant motion among themselves. May not
these atomic movements of the three gases, nitrogen, hydrogen and
■oxygen, all of which are associated wdtli carbon in bioplasm, be in some
manner retained in the integration of the organic cell ?

Life-motion is probably not uiiduluiori/, like light, heat and electrical
movement, but rotary or cycloidal. For an analogy, I would allude,
somewliat too boldly, to the theory of some astronomers, of the present
constitution of Saturn's rings ; of multitudinous small masses incessantly
in motion among themselves. And the occasion for brevity in this com-
munication must be the excuse for crOM'ding, before I conclude, yet other
questionable proposals of analogy ; as of the minute microscopic cell, with
its inward, and outward currents througli undiscoverable pores, with even
the incretions and excretions of the sun and its photosphere ; whose out-
ward and inward cloud-currents are now being so laboriously studied.
Somewhat less remote, certainly, is the suggestion of analogy {7iot iden-
tity) of life-actions with effects of some of the other forces of physical
nature. I would regard sexual union which (except in mere dividuation,
such as the life of a tree in its cuttings, or the fissiparous generation of
animals) is, until heterogeny or spontaneous generation be proved, the
only method of the indefinite continuation of life, — I w^ould regard this
sexual union as the true analogue of chemical union. The importance
of bi-sexual polarity in organic nature has hardly yet been fully appre-
ciated. Carbon and oxygen uniting give out heat, and carbonic acid
which escapes. Organisms of two sexes, say the pollen cells and germ cells
of a plant combine, and evolve life-iovce, wdiose products do not escape,
but remain as organizable and organized protoplasmic matter ; develop-
ing new cells in connection with each other. Yet another analogy wath
physical force-action may be presented. It is known that phyllotaxis, or

r:^

m

■M

HartsJiome.]

316

[Jan. 19.

tlie leaf and branch arrangement of plants, follo-vvs a s^^iral law, arithmeti-
cally calculable, and showing a striking correspondence with the order
remarked in the successive distances of the i^lancts of our solar system
from the sun. But what this phyllotaxis still more readily recalls to us
iSj — tlie ])elix of the electro-magnet ; or, rather, of the magneto-electric
apparatus. As the opposite polarities of the magnet are to the current
of the helix of wire, so may be — of course, we do not say is — sexual
bi-polarity to the spiral phyllotaxis. AVhile a spiral tendency or move-
ment cannot be so clearly traced in animals, yet some indices of what we
may call organo-taxis are not wanting. As opposite leaves are held
to represent a double sj^iral, and whorls two or more, so the bilateral
symmetry of vertebrates, articulates and some moUusks, and the whorled
form of radiates and coilent crates, may present or imitate results of a,
similar polar force.

Another analogy, with which physicists may have more i>atienco, is of
a reverse kind, with heat. As a spark of fire sets burning an indehnito
amount of combustible matter within its iBflxience, so a spark of life
vitalizes successively an indelinitc amount of viable, organizable material
as food. But the difference is, as remarked already, that while the in-
crement of heat-force instigates the continuous reduction of less stable
conditions of matter to those more stable, the increment of life-force
elevates materials from stable into unstable substances, with constantly
transmuted forms.

To conclude : By no such crude analogies as these can any one imagine
that the mystery of life is to be altogether removed. These remarks are
presented mainly to suggest and show that inquiry into life-force and its.
attributes may now legitimately follow methods like in nature those used
in studying the other i3hysical forces ; and to expand to some extent the
germinal thought, that, while life or life-force must yet be always differ-
entiated from the other cosmic forces, it is, like them, a motion, or mode
of motion, whose study is a part of i)hysics — organic physics.

I would add that such a view of the correlation of biology with the.
other physical sciences no more interferes with a theistic and tcleological
view of creation than does the (now familiar) resolution of many once
called vital actions (as digestion, circulation, blood-aeration) into chemical
or physical acts, the results of ordinary forces of nature, which arc collo-
cated in the animal body under the conditions of \ itality. To analyze is
not to create, or oven to show how creation was effected ; much less is it.
to afford a negation of the fact of creation itself. Yet, to analyze is
always legitimate in science, so long as it is done accurately, step by step ;
and this, whether it point to biogenesis or abiogenesis, to the origin of
types by interrupted appearances or by evolution.

The discussion of Mr. Price's paper, read at the last
meeting, being in order,
remarks :

Mr. Cope made the following

>*

^^c,

18T2.]

317

[Cope.

As the essay read before this Society under the above title, adduces no
facts for or against the theory of Evolution not already kno>vnj the -writer
does not propose tocriticise it as a whole. His object is to correct some
statements of supposed fact, wliich are germane to the argument of the
essay, in which its author has been led astray by the statements of
others, or want of familiarity with the subject.

Tlie erroneous statements are the following :

1st. That the gradations of variational and specific form seen among
domesticated animals are peculiar to them, not being found among ani-
mals in the wild state ; and are therefore due exclusively to the inliuence

of human interference.

2d. That fertile hybrids do not exist in the wild state, and that their
existence between domesticated varieties is therefore evidence of their
■common origin.

3d. That transitions from species to species, as to form and other essen-
tials, occur neither in the present period nor in the succession of geologic
strata.

4th. That the examples of intermediate forms, or supposed transitional
■structures, on which the evolvitionists rely, are abnormal or monstrous,
or otherwise insufficient for the use made of them.

These are four very natural popular fallacies, and the present seems to
be a suitable oppoi-tunity for exposing them.

First, That graded varieties and unstable specific forms do not exist
■outsi<le of domestication, and are due to its influence, etc. To find an
unqualifLcd contradiction to this statem.ent, it is only necessary to refer to
the diagnostic tables and keys of the best and most honest zoologists and
botanists. It is true that these diagnoses are dry reading to the non-pro-
fessional, yet they embrace nearly all that is of value in this jijart of bio-
logical science, and must be mastered in some department, before the
student is in possession of the means of forming an opinion. The neglect
to do this explains why it is that, after all that has been written and said
about irrotean species, etc., the subject should be so little understood,
The fact is thus : That in every family or larger group of animals and
plants, there exists one or more genera in which the species present an
aggregation of specific intensity of form ; that is, that species become
more and more closely related, and, finally, varieties of single species have
to be admitted for the sake of obtaining a systematic diagnosis, which will
Hpply to all the individuals. These varieties are frequently as well marked
as the nearly related species, so far as amotint of difference is concerned,
the distinction between the two cases being that in the varieties there is
a gradation from one to the other ; in the species, none. Nevertheless,
l>otween some of the varieties, transitions may be of rare occurrence, and
in the case of the "species," an intermediate individual or two may oc-
-casionally be found. Thus it is that differences of the varietal and of the
specific kinds are distinguished by degree only, and not in kind, and are
therefore the results of the operation of uniform laws. Yet, according

n\^>--

^i---^

m

m

m

M

Cope]

318

[Jan. 19,,

to the old theory, the varieties have a common origin, and the species au
independent one. To cite examples of what is asserted, the monograph
of the Tenebrionidii;, by Dr. Horn, in the Transactions of this Society,
especially the genus Meodes, maybe mentioned, or the essay on the genus
Ptychosiouius, in the writer's "Fishes of Xorth CaroUna," in the Pro-
ceedings of the Society, may be consulted.

It is true that in but few of these cases have the varieties been seen to
be bred from connnon parents, a circumstance entirely owing to the diffi-
culties of observation. The reasoning derived from the relations of dif-
ferences appears to be conclusive as to their common origin, miless wo
are prepared to adopt the opposite view that the varieties have originated
separately. As these avowedly grade into individual variations, ^^-e must
at once be led to believe that individuals have been created independently:
a manifest absurdity.

But variations in the same brood have been found among wild animals •
for example, both the red and gray varieties of the little horned owl
{Scops ado) have been taken from the same nest.

As further examples of gradation between species and varieties, found

in nature, I only have to select thosti genera most numerous in species

and best atadied. Among Birds : Corpus, Einpido^iax, Buteo, Falco, etc. ;

Reptiles : EiUmnia, Anolis, Li/codon, JS'<(ja, Gaitduona, Elaps, O.ryr-

rhopus, etc. ; Batrachia : liana, Ilyla^ Choropliilufi^ Borborocoetes, Auihly-

stovia, Spelerpes, etc. ; Fishes : Plj/chosto/iiuf^, Fltotogenis, Plecostornus^
Amiurus, Perca, and many others.

These protean genera are not the majority of those known to naturalists,
but are quite numerous. That the variability depends on a peculiar con-
dition of the animals themselves, and not on domestication, excepting in
so far as it produces these conditions, is plain not only from the above
facts, but from those observed in domestication. It is well known that
while pigeons, fowls, cattle, dogs, etc., are very variable or "protean,"
the pea-fowl {Pavo) has maintained its specific characters with great ac-
curacy, during a period of domestication as long as that of the other
species named. The same may be said of the Guinea {Numidia) and the
Turkey (Meleagris). These facts show that domestication is only a
remote cause of variability.

Second. That hybrids do not occTir among wild animals, etc. The
affirmative of this question is no more important to the, view of evolution
than the reverse ; nevei'theless, if hybridization be regarded by any as
evidence of common origin, as the author of "Phases of Modern Philoso-
phy," etc., believes, then some wild species are undoubtedly descended
from the same parents. There are a few fertile hybrids in nature, though
some animals have been stated to be such without sufficient evidence ; for
exami>le, the Colaptes ay rem (woodpecker) is thought by Professor Baird
to be a permanent hybrid between the Eastern C. ornatvs and Oalifornian
G. mexicanu.% and as it occupied the region between tlic two (Upper Mis-
souri) there is every reason to believe that such is tlie case, especially aa

■^^^.--ri

1872.]

319

[Cope,

it mingles and breeds freely witli both the others on the borders of their
range.

TMrd, Tliat transitions from species to species in the present periods
have not been observed ; nor have they been discovered in passing up-
wards through strata of the earth's crust.

Tlae all-sufficient answer to this statement is to be found in the imper-
fection of our system of classification already pointed out. Thus, if we
first assume with the anti-developmentalistj that varieties have a common
parentage, and species distinct ones, when intermediate forms connecting
so-called species are discovered, we must confess ourselves in error, and
admit that the forms supposed to have had different origin, really had a
common one. Such intermediate forms really establish the connection
between species, but the question is begged at once by asserting unity of
species, and therefore of origin, so soon as the intermediate form is found ;
for, as before observed, it is iiot degree but constancy of distinction, which
establishes the species of the zoological systems. Transitions between
species are constantly discovered in existing animals : when numerous in
individuals, the more diverse forms are regarded as "aberrant;" when
few, the extremes become "varieties," and it is only necessary to destroy
the annectant forms altogether, to leave two or more species. As the
whole of a variable species generally has a wide geographical range, the
varieties coinciding with sub-areas, the submergence or other change in
the interveniiig surface would destroy connecting forms, and naturally

produce isolated species.

Formerly, naturalists sometimes did this in their studies. A zoologist
"knoAvn to fame, once pointed out to me some troublesome sj^ieeimens
■which set his attempts at delinition of certain sx-jecies at dcJlancc. "These,"
said he, "are the kind that I throw out of the window." Naturalists
having abandoned "throwing " i>uzzling forms "out of the window,"
the result of more honest study is a belief in evolution by four-fifths of

them.

Fourili. That the "variations" or intermediate types pointed toby

evolutionists in favor of their positions, are exceptional, abnormal, or too
few to be available in demonstration of the origin species in general, etc.
The cases of ti'ansition. Intermediate forms, or diversity in 'the brood,
observed and cited by naturalists in proof of evolution, arc few com-
pared with the numbers of well delined, isolated species, genera, etc.,
though far more numerous than the author of the article criticised is aware
of. Their value in evidence of the nature and origin of the permanent
forms, is, it seems to me, conclusive, and to a certain extent, complete.
By the inductive process of reasoning we arrive at a knowledge of the
unknown from the known, a process which we act itpon in our daily
affairs, and one which constitutes the key to knowledge. It rests upon
the invariability of nature's operations under identical circumstances, and
for its application merely demands that analysis and comparison shall fix
that the nature of that of which something is unknown, is identical with

-;jj-rw--j

: ]

nm

'

m\

Cope.j

320

[Jan. 19, 1872.

that of which something is known. We then with certainty refer that
something which is known, as an attribute of that ohject of which the
same quality had been previously unknown.

In application to the question of evolution the following preliminary
facts may be assumed :

1. Many species are composed of identical elemental parts which pre-
sent minor differences.

3. Some of these differences have been seen to arise "spontaneously ;"
that is, characters have made their appearance in offspring of parents
which did not possess them,^or what is the same thing, are known to
exist in individuals whose parentage is identical with others which do
not possess them.

3. The gradation of differences of the same elemental parts is one of
degree only, and not of kind.

4. Induction : Therefore all such differences have originated by a
modiffcation in generation, or have niixde their appearance without trans-
mission, in descent.

This induction is one of the forms in which the proof for evolution ap-
pears, though a more cogent argument is that already proscniod in Chap-
ter I, of the paper entitled "On the Method of Creation," etc., Pro-
ceedings A. P. S., 1871.

The fact that in the majority of species, their origin by descent with
modification has not been directly observed, in no wise iuv^alidates the
above argument. Unless they present positive evidence against such
origin, these are absolutely silent witnesses. He who cites them against
evolution commits the error of the native of the G-reen Isle, who was
present at a murder trial : "Although the prosecuting attorney brought
three witnesses to swear positively that they saw the murder committed,
I could produce thirty who swore that they did not see it done ! "

Mnally, it may be asserted that the Theory of Development is the
only theory of creation before the scientific world at the present time.
The author of "Some Phases," etc., says, in opposition to it, that Ood
made the species, and that their gradual evolution dispenses with His in-
terferences and authorship. Will our author explain to us how God made
the species independent from the start ? No opponent of development
has attempted to do this, and until it is done, there can be no theory or
doctrine in the field other than that of Evolution. The Evolutionists not
only believe with the author criticised, that God made all things, Init they
attempt to show in the field of biology, hoio He did it.

If they are correct in their interpretation of the facts, there can be, and
is, no interference between their views and the purest morality, and the
most faithful religion.

Other iucnil)Grs took part in tlic discussion.

On motion, Mr. Lesley was elected Lil^rarian for the ensu-
ing year.

321

On motion, the nomination of Standing Committees being
in order, those of the preceding year were continued.

On motion, the reading of the Catalogue of Members ^vns

dispensed "^yith.

Pending nominations N"os. 679, 689, and new nominations

690, 691 were read.

I>rominations jSTos. 678 to 688 were spoken to by lfs"ominors
and ballotted for ; and on a scrutiny of the ballot boxes, by
the presiding officer, the following gentlemen were declared
duly elected members of the Society:

Prof. W. C. Korr, State Geologist of IS". Car., Raleigh, X. C.

Mr. La Motte Dupont de JSTemours, ^Yilmington, Del.

Prof. William P. Trowbridge, of Yale College, New

Haven, Conn.

Dr. William Elder, of Philadelphia.

Francis Bowycr ]\Iiller, Esq., of the Royal Branch ]\Iint at

Melbourne, Aus.

Mr. Guillanme Lambert, Professor of Chemistry in the

UniAxrsity of Louvain, Belgium.

Mr. Persifor Erazer, Jr., Assistant Prof. Chemistry, Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

Mr. George W. Hough, Director of the Dudley Observa-
tory, Albany.

Mr. William A. Stokes, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Edwin J. Houston, Professor in the High School and
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.

And the Society was adjourned.

'Stated Meeting, February 2d^ 1872.

Present, fifteen members.

Vice-President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

;^ew members : — Mr. Stokes, Dr. Elder and Prof. Persifor
Frazer, Jr., were introduced to the presiding officer and
took (heir scats.

Letters accepting membership were received from Prof.

flfr

A. P. S. — VOL. XII.

r^

o.

■ i1

m

322

Wm. C. Kerr, dated Raleigh, K C, January 29tli ; Prof-
Edwin J. Houston, dated 3603 Cheistnut street, Philadel])liia,,
January SOtli ; Prof. Persifor Frazer, Jr., dated 137 S. Fifth
street, Philadeljjhia, January 28th ; and Mr. Win. A. Stokes,,
dated 2026 Delanccy Place, Philadelphia, Jan. 25th, 1872.

A letter of envoi was received from the Fondation Teyler.

Letters enclosino: the draft of a memorial to Cono-ress, for an
appropriation for observing the transit of Venus, were received,
from Eear-Admiral Sands, dated U. S. iSTaval Observatory,
Washington, D. C, Jan. 18th, 1872, and Jan. 30th, 1872.

On motion of Dr. Ruschenberger, a committee, consisting
of Dr. Ruschenberger, Prof J. F. Frazer and Mr. Marsh,
was appointed to consider the subject of preparing a memo-
rial to Congress for an appropriation for observing the tran-
sit of Venus, in accordance with the recommendation of
Rear-Admiral Sands.

A portrait of D'Alembert, by Rembrandt Peale, was pre-
sented to the Society by Mr. Joseph Harrison, of Philadel--
phia, who purchased it at the sale of tlie Peale Collection
some years ago. On 7 notion, the Secretaries were instructed
to tender the thanks of the Society to the donor.

The Secretaries laid on the table for the examination of
the members the 87th number of the Proceedings of the
Society, just published.

Donations for the Lil)rary were received from the Belgian
Academy, the Revue Politique ; N'ature ; the Canadian Na-
turalist ; Salem Institute ; Old and ISTew ; Silliman's Jour-
nal ; Journal of Pharmacy ; Fraidvlin Institute ; Academy
of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the Chief of U. S. Engi--
neers; the Smithsonian Institute ; the New York Anthro-
23ological Society, and Senator Sumner.

The Anthropological Institute of New York; the Voigt-

r;

landsche Verein fiir Naturkunde, Reichenbach a-V. ; the Zo-
olog-Mineral. Verein, Regensburg ; and the Verein fiir Vater-
land: Naturkunde, Stuttgart, were, on motion, placed on the*
list of corresponding Societies, to receive the Proceedings.
The death of Mr. Edward Miller, a member of the Society,.,

1

\

I

Feb. 2, 1872.]

323

[Wood..

on the 1st instant, at West rhilaclclpliia, in the 62d year of
his age, was announced by Mr. Fraley, with appropriate re-
marks. On motioii, ^h\ Solomon ^Y. Eoberts w^as appointed
to prepare an obituary notice of the deceased.

The Committee to whicli was referred the paper and map
of Mr. Lyman, on the runjaub Oil Region, reported in favor
of its publication in the Transactions.

Mr. Lyman exhibited a large map of the region between
Rawul Pindee and the Salt Range, published by the British
Government, and described the zoological structure and

mineralogy of the country.

Dr. G. B. Wood, referring to his previous communications
of the use of potash salts in agriculture, made some addi-
tional remarks on that subject.

Professor Cope offered for publication in the Proceedings
a paper on " The Families of Fislies of the Cretaceous Form-
ation of Kansas."

Pendino- nominations Xos. 689, 690 and 691 were read,,

and the meeting was adjourned.

Influence of FresJt Wood-Ashes on the Grotcth of Wheat, Potatoes, ^c.

By Dh. Geokge B. Wood.

{Bead before the American Philosophical Society, February 2d, 1872.)
In a commiuiicatiou made to tlie Society at their meeting of JanTiary
Cth, 1871, in relation to the efficiency of fresh ^Yoocl-ashes in the revival
of prematurely failing fruit-trees, I took occasion to suggest that, upon.
the same principles, ihcy might prove eciuully efficacious in preventing
the failure or defieioncy of the wlieat crop, so common (.f late in the old
settled parts of our country. The opinion was based on the large pro-
portion of potassa found in the ashes of the \n heat plant, when burned in
the growing state ; exceeding as it does twenty times that of common
unleached ashes. Wheat, therefore, requires a very large relative pro-
portion of the alkali for its growth, more than can be derived from an
exhausted soil, even when aided by manure, wliich, though it contains a
considerable quantity of the salts of potassa, cannot yield enough to ^thc
"rowing wheat to insure a large crop. But this was mere speculation,
and the <iuestion could be decided only by experiment. Accordingly, as
stated in my last communicatioi;, I selected an acre of ground, and divid-
im*- it into three parts, treated one with ashes alone, another with ashes

F

i

C^-^'^M

m

Wood.

324

[Feb. '2,

and swamp-muck coiijoiutly, and tlie third with muck alone ; the muck
being applied as ordinary manure, and the ashes sprinkled upon the
plouglied ground at the same time with the sowing of the wheat, and
then harrowed in along with it. This was done early in the autumn of
1870. Even during the same season, the eye could readily perceive the
more luxuria,nt growth of the wheat where supplied with ashes, and a
line of division between this portion of the lot, and that simply manured,
was very obvious. But the point in (piestion could not be decided until
harvest time next year. Unfortunately, circumstances prcvontcd me from
being present at that time, and I had to depend for the result upon the
report of my agent, in whom, however, I have grc.nt confidence. He re-
ported that he gathered the wheat from small and perfectly equal por-
tions of the tAvo divisions, of which one had, an<l the other had not been
ashed ; finding no such difference between the two ashed portions as to
render it worth while to distinguish them. On separating and measuring
the wheat, he found that the quantity from the ground where the ashes
were used was about double that from the part which had been supplied
with muck alone, and, in relation to general productiveness, was in the
proportion of about 37 bushels to the acre, far exceeding the ordinary
crop, which, though under x)ecnliar]y favorable circumstarices, it may
sometimes equal 20 bushels to the acre, does not often, according to my
experience and observation, exceed 13 or 15 bushels. It should be men-
tioned tliat the ground on which the experiment was made was of nearly
equal quality throughout, and very poor.

But I have to mention a fact connected -with these proceedings, which
goes still further than anything yet said to prove the efficacy of potash in
the wheat culture. The connnon poke is a plant abounding in the salts
of potassa, and, therefore, selects for its own growth new and rich soils,
which have not yet been exhausted by cultivation. Upon the heaps of
swamp muck, thrown up on the borders of cranberry meadows in the
process of their preparation, the poke springs up very rapidly and cop-
iously, so as in a short time to completely cover the heaps ; and the eye
at once recognizes a muck bed by this luxuriant covei-ing. By gather-
ing and burning this copioixs crop, we obtained a quantity of ashes re-
markably rich in x)otassa, containing at least 45 parts of the alkali in 1000
of the ashes, and therefore very nearly equaling in this respect the grow-
ing wheat. To test the quality of some ashes thus obtained, we substi-
tuted it for the common ^A'ood ashes in a small space of that division of
the ground which was treated with this material. Within this small
space the wheat grew most luxuriantly, with stems higher and stronger,
and heads longer and fuller than those of the plant in other parts of
the lot ; and, when the crop was gathered, the produce was found to
be in the proportion of thirty-eight bushels to the acre, exceeding by
more than one-third that obtained under ordinary wood-ashes. As
the proportion of the alkali in the two kinds of ashes used was the
only point in which they materially differed, the necessary inference
is that the ditferenee in the amount of product was owing exclusively to

■t

1

\
\

r\-^^ih:.

1872.]

325

[Wood.,

the mucli greater proportion of potassa in the poke-asheSj T^-hich
exceeded by more than 20 times tluit of the wuod-ashes ; and fur-
ther, that all the effects of ashes in promoting the growth of wheat
are ascribable to the alkali contained in them.

These experiments were made on too small a scale, and with too little
precision in quantity and measurement, to authorize any very exact
conclusion as to the effect of ashes upon growing -wheat ; hut they are
sufficient, I think, to prove that the effect is very great, and that the far-
mer may have recourse, with great hopes of advantage, to this agent, if
attainable at a suitable price. If the plan be generally adopted, the ashes
would soon fail ; but I have no doubt that commercial potash might be
substituted for them, with at least equal effect ; one pound of it being
equivalent, I presume, to about a bushel of the best wood-ashes. Should
the supply of commercial potash fail, recourse may be had to the alkali
as now procured from mineral sources, which will probably prove inex-
haustible.

A few remarks on the mode of using the ashes, or their alkaline substi-
tute, for the promotion of the wheat crop, may be acceptable to those
who, without previous experience, may be disposed to try the measure.

When leached ashes have been used as a dressing for wheat, for which
experience has long showed that they are among the best fertilizers, they
have been applied in the same manner as ordinary manure ; being first
spread ui)on the surface, and then turned under by ploughing. This method
is correct ; because the very small proportion of potassa contained in
leached ashes is in the form of the insoluble silicate, which cannot be
dissolved or carried away by the rains, but which is probably slowly con-
verted, as wanted, into the soluble carbonate by the iniiuence of the root-
lets, Avhich then absorb it. The unleached ashes, containing the alkali in
a soluble state, cannot be treated in the same manner ; as their alkali
would be dissolved by the rain, and carried away, in great measure beyond
the reach of the roots. I have, therefore, caused the ashes to be
sprinkled or otherwise spread, as equally as possible, over the surface of
the ploughed ground at the same time that the wheat is sowed, and the
two then to be harrowed in together. The grain is thus brought into
contact with the ashes, and, when the alkali is dissolved out, is ready to
appropriate it to its own development. But as all the unappropriated
alkali is probably dissolved out, and carried aAvay by the winter rains, I
direct that, in the early spring, another coating of ashes should be
sprinkled over the young wheat, so as to yield it a supply of the alkali
during the growing period.

The same plan, essentially, should be followed in the use of commer-
cial potash. Being extremely soluble, it should lirst be dissolved in water,
and the solution then sprinkled over the ploughed ground at the sowing
of the wheat, and again in the early spring upon the crop as it is l)cgin-

ning to grow.

As to the precise quantity of ashes or of commercial potash to be

iP*-

j| ,

i

^■■^':i

.:="

I

Wood.]

326

[Feb. 2, 1S72.

'iNi

usedj in proportion to the extent of groundj T am not prepared to
say ; but I believe tliat I have employed from 25 to 50 bushels of the
fi'esh wood-ashes to the acre. I have no doubt, however, that this
quantity might be greatly exceeded, not only safely but with advantage ;
as shown by the effects, before mentioned, of the poke ashes, which
must have been equivalent in alkaline strength to at least 20 times the
quantity of common unleached ashes.

Every fai"mer, in whose family the aslies are lixiviated for the preparation
of soft soap, has it in his power to make a little experiment, the result of
which may determine his future course. Let him beg from the women a
bucket full of lye, and, after sowing his wdieat in the autumn, let him, by
.means of a tin watering can with i>erforated sx>outj si)rinkle the liquid
equally over a small portion of the field, and rej^cat the process upon the
same plot of ground when the wheat begins to resume its growth in the
spring. If lie find the i>roduct of the small plot thus treated greatly in
excess of the average of the field, he may gain confidence to proceed on a
larger scale, and thus perhaps, materially advance his income.

Within about a year, my attention has been attracted to the potato
crop, with reference to the use of fresh ashes in its cultivation, and I
have little doubt that the same treatment may be applied to this as to the
wheat, with at least equal advantage. On consulting the chemical au-
thoritiesj I found that the stems and leaves of the conmion Irish i)otato
are even richer than the wlieat plant in the salts of potassa ; their ashes
containing 55 parts of potassa in the 1000, while the proportion of wheat
is only 47. Kow the potato crop has of late years, hi my neighborhood,
been much more uncertain than formerly ; even, I think, independently ,
of the disease which has from time to time made so much havoc with
this crop. It is highly probable that the cause, as in the case of
fruit trees, may be a deficiency in the supply of potassa, and it is
xiot impossible that the disease which is believed to have its origin in
,a microscopic fungus, may, like the worm at the root of the peach,
depend upon the deprivation of the alkali, which may be necessary
to the protection of the plant against these Ioav pnrasites. To deter-
mine this point, as far as a single observation could do so, I had a
■quantity of potatoes planted last spring in rows, a certain number of
which wore supplied with fresh ashes in the hills, while the remainder
were treated only with manure. In the row^s in which ashes were
■used, the plant grew mucli more vigorously than in the others, and
the product in potatoes was, I believe, about double ; though I cannot

recall the i:)recise figure, in this case.

I have under way, this season, an experiment on the apphcation of fresh
ashes to the wheat crop on a much larger scale than the first ; and my in-
tention is to pursue a similar plan with the potato, at the time of plant-
ing in the spring. Should I be spared to see the results of these trials, I
hope to be able to present a statement about them to the Society. Should
the opportunity ofter, I intend also to try how facts will support my

*■

[

Jan. 5, 1872.]

327

[Cope.

supposition, in relation to tlie use of common potasli as a su'bstitute for

ashes.

I cannot close this communication without referring to the original

subject of the revival of prematurely failing peach trees. I have con-
tinued to apply ashes in the same manner as at first, in the autumn or
spring, or both, to the different kinds of fruit trees ; and, I believe, with
uniforndy favorable results. The peach orcliard, winch, four years ago,
appeared to be in a dying state, and had for several seasons ceased to bear
fruit, is now in a vigorous state, and last summer yielded a copious crop.
The old apple orchard, whicli was so wonderfully revived two years since,
continues apparently, except in the case of a few trees dying from old age,
to liold all that it had gained, though we lost the crop last year through
the destruction of the blossoms by a late frost. The pears and quinces
of which the blossoming period differed from that of the apple, so that
they escaped the frost, were full of fruit ; and I was particularly struck
with one old quince tree, which, before the use of ashes had borne scanty
crops of a small, imperfect, knotty fruit, but, last year, under the influ-
ence of ashes, was loaded with smooth and well formed quinces.

I have not yet been able to form any positive conclusion in relation to
the protective effect of fresh ashes against the curculio in the pluni tree ;
but I am prosecuting some inquiries in this direction, and hope before
long to be able to solve the question either favorably or unfavorably.
I must confess, hoAvever, tliat I am by no means sanguine of the former
result.

ON THE FAMILIES OF FISHES OF THE CRETACEOUS

FORMATION OF KANSAS.

Bt E. D. Cope.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society^ Jamutry otJi, 1872.)

SAURODONTID.E.

Cope. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc, 1870, p. 529. Hayden's Survey, Wyoming,

etc., 1871, p. 414.

A considerable accession of material belonging to several si)ecies of this

family, furnishes important additions to our knowledge of their structure,
and enables me to determine their affinities with more precision than
beretofore. The resiUts are of value to the student of comparative anat-
omy, and also to the paljeontologist, as they appear to have been the
predominant type of marine fishes, during the cretaceous period, in the
North American seas, and to have been abundant in those of Europe.

The characters already assigned to the faniily are confirmed by the new
■ Species discovered, and many additional ones added, as follows :

The cranial structure cannot be fully made out, but tlie following points
inav be re<rarded as ascertained : The hrain case is not continued between
the orbits, and the basis cranii is double and with the nuiscular tube

■^^^-

1

Cope.]

3^

[Jan.

open. A large lateral cavity is enclosed by the i-n'ootic, the ptcrotic, the
epiotiCj etc. There are no exoccipital condyles, and that of the basioc-
cipital is a conic cup. The ptcrotic and postfrontal are well developed.
The ethmoid is well developed and slightly narrowed at its anterior ex-
tremity. The parasphenoid is narrowed and elongate ; the vomer is
continuous with it and is slightly expanded and then contracted at the
anterior extremity : neither it nor the parasphenoid support teeth in any

of the known genera.

The premaxillary bones are short, and for^i but a small portion of the
upper jaw. The maxillary is elongate and simple. The hyomandibular
is rather narrow and docs not present an elongate peduncle for the oper-
culum. The symplectic is well developed, enteruig far into the inferior
quadrate. The latter is a broad hone, largely in contact with the meta-
pterygoid, which is itself a thin plate, not probably attaining the ptcr-
otic. The superior branchihyals are short rods.

The relations of the supraoccipital, parietals, fl-ontals, etc., cannot yet
be satisfactorily made out, owing to the obscurity of the sutures. Kever-
theless the following points may be regarded as probably reliable. The
frontals have a rather broad union with the ethmoid, and are separated
by suture throughout their length. They do not extend much posterior
to the orbits and are succeeded by a rather narrow pair of bones which
extend to above the forrunen magnum. These are not united by suture,
but present thickened smooth edges to each other, and appear therefore
to have been separated by a fontanelle. Each is separated by serrate
suture, from a broad lateral bone which is perhaps the pterotic, and cer-
tainly includes that element, as it supports the hyomandibular. It is not
easy to determine what relation the median bones bear to the supraoc-
cipital, but the structure looks a good deal like that characterizing the
SiluridcB, or, considering the large pterotics, like the Mormyrklm plus
the fontanelle. The shorter form of the pterotic in the Gharacinidce and
the Gatosiomulm causes considerable difference in their appearance. There
is no indication of fontanelle between the frontals in Porihem.

Portions of tlio scapulae of Portlwus molo^Hm and other species, are
preserved. They have very stout articular surfaces, and although not
comi)lete, have enclosed, more or less, a very large fontanelle. The su-
perior surface is the larger, and is followed below by two others, the up-
per subvertieal and small, the lower larger aiid transverse. These are
surfaces supporting two basilar elements of the pect